459-440BC in Rome

Portrait of Velia Velcha from the Tomb of the Orcus
(or Tomb of Orcus) in Tarquinia

This blog post will look at the years 459-440BC in Roman history, touching briefly on other parts of Italian history where possible. The primary source for the period is Livy, in his monumental work Ab Urbe Condita, which means "From the Foundation of the City". He wrote this in the time of Augustus, so it is much later than the events described. Other sources for this time include tiny fragments from Diodorus Siculus, who wrote about this time period and Rome, but about a generation or two earlier than Livy. Dionysius of Halicarnassus and some other historians contain some information about the period also. There are also some lists of the consuls and triumphs of the various years preserved in ancient inscriptions, such as the Fasti Capitolini and the Fasti Triumphales.

The reader should take the dates and the events with a pinch of salt. Dating was an inexact science and there are disagreements on interregnums and other events. Every date in this blog may be incorrect. Most dates for the Roman Republic follow Livy's dates, which may make the dates somewhat earlier than what they may have actually been. One should also remember that the Roman years fluctuated compared to our own, so an event that I have mentioned as happening in one year may have happened at least partly in the following year. I have taken Livy's account as my primary source.

Also, many of Livy's sources were the personal histories of the wealthy families of Rome. These were immensely proud and their recollections of their ancestors may be highly fanciful. Some of these records, as we have seen with some of the stories of Tarquin, may in fact have been transposed from Greek history. I will call out these when I can.

Cincinnatus at his plough, painted by Cabanel in 1843 

In the year 459 Quintus Fabius Vibulanus and Lucius Cornelius Malugensis Uritinus were elected consuls in Rome. The plebeians were still furious with the patricians after the unrest of the previous year. However, it appeared that the state was being threatened by the Aequi and the Volscians once more. Fabius won a victory against the Volscians at Antium. However during this time the Aequi had taken the town of Tusculum, which was a close ally to Rome. The Romans fought back and defeated the Aequi near Algidus.

It is possible that this entire episode is invented. Livy often records Roman defeats or discomfitures, but he nearly always follows it with an account of how Rome then won a victory over those who had defeated them. This may have often happened, but it does seem to happen a lot on the pages of Livy. In the year previous, Livy records that the Tusculans had helped the Romans recover the Capitoline Hill, so it seems a little suspicious that the following year that the Romans would help the Tusculans recover their city.

The consuls returned to the city, where there was further tension between themselves and the tribunes. There was evidence that the ex-tribune who had testified against Caeso in previous years had committed perjury, which was seen as a great injustice by the patricians, as Caeso had died in exile. I am sceptical of whether this story happened at all. The tribunes certainly wanted to be re-elected themselves and the consuls certainly opposed this, so no gossip about a trial was needed for there to be tension between the orders. The Aequi also asked for and possibly obtained a treaty.

Cincinnatus at his plough, being approached by the elders
of Rome and informed that he is now dictator,
by Benouville 1843

In the year 458 Gaius Nautius Rutilus and Lucius Minucius Esquilinus Augurinus were elected consuls in Rome. There was a new war with the Aequi and the Sabines. Unexpectedly the army of Lucius Minucius was surrounded by the Aequi at Mount Algidus and placed under siege. Messengers managed to escape to Rome to give the news that one of the consuls and his army were surrounded.

The other consul and the Senate decided that the situation was serious enough that a dictator should be appointed. Lucius Quinctius Cincinnatus was appointed as dictator. Livy records that he was a patrician, but a poor farmer who had only a tiny plot of land, which he worked himself. Livy gives a dramatic account of the senators coming out of the city to Cincinnatus' farm to tell him that he was now the leader of the state.

There he was found by the deputation from the senate either digging out a ditch or ploughing, at all events, as is generally agreed, intent on his husbandry. After mutual salutations he was requested to put on his toga that he might hear the mandate of the senate, and they expressed the hope that it might turn out well for him and for the State. He asked them, in surprise, if all was well, and bade his wife, Racilia, bring him his toga quickly from the cottage. Wiping off the dust and perspiration, he put it on and came forward, on which the deputation saluted him as Dictator and congratulated him…
Titus Livius, Ab Urbe Condita, 3.26, written around 18BC

Cincinnatus moved quickly and ordered all who were eligible to bear arms to assemble and to bring twelve stakes instead of the customary two. These were duly brought and Cincinnatus marched to Mount Algidus, surrounding the besieging Aequi and using the stakes to construct a ready-made barricade. The besieged Romans were able to occupy their attackers long enough for Cincinnatus' troops to complete the circumvallation and the Aequi were forced to surrender. Their commander, Cloelius Gracchus, was handed over to the Romans, the town of Corbio was handed over to Rome and the army of the Aequi was forced to go under the yoke; a symbolic act of submission.

Statue of Cincinnatus handing back the fasces
(symbol of dictatorial/consular power) and returning to
his plough

Cincinnatus returned to Rome where he celebrated a triumph. He then prosecuted the ex-tribune who was said to have testified against his son Caeso and exiled the accuser. After this he resigned his dictatorship and returned to his farm.

In the year 457 Gaius Horatius Pulvillus and Quintus Minucius Esquilinus were elected consuls in Rome. The Aequi attacked the garrison at the town of Corbio, which had been handed over to the Romans the year before and then attacked Ortona. Their army was defeated once more at Mount Algidus by one of the consular armies of Rome. Corbio was razed to the ground in punishment for having betrayed the Roman garrison.

In the year 456 Marcus Valerius Maximus Lactuca and Spurius Verginius Tricostus Caeliomontanus were elected consuls in Rome. There were heavier rains than usual this year and there was a dearth of provisions, although it was not a full-scale famine. No campaigns of note occurred, but Livy noted that the Aventine Hill was opened for settlement at this time. This was under the law known as the Lex Icilia, which granted the plebeians land here and may have been seen as a very partial land reform.

In the year 455 Titus Romilius Rocus Vaticanus and Gaius Veturius Cicurinus were elected consuls in Rome. There was further war with the Aequi that year and another Roman victory on the slopes of Mount Algidus. I cannot help but wonder if Livy is not recording the same battle happening over and over in different years. The two consuls sold the loot and gave the money into the treasury, which caused a great deal of annoyance to the soldiers who had been on campaign and had expected a share of the spoils.

Portrait of Velia Velcha in the Tomb of the Orcus

Around this time, in the city of Tarquinia, a tomb known as the Tomb of Orcus was created. It was probably created for a wealthy Etruscan family known as the Murina family, who were an offshoot of the Spurinnae clan. The tomb is painted with vivid murals and contains a well preserved portrait of a lady known as Velia Velcha, who appears to be sneering in her portrait. A later annex was built onto the tomb about a century later, but this has never been properly excavated.

In the year 454 Spurius Tarpeius Montanus Capitolinus and Aulus Aternius Varus Fontinalis were elected consuls in Rome. The consuls of the previous year were put on trial by the tribunes of the plebs for illegally putting the loot into the state treasury rather than distributing it to the soldiers. The patricians were incensed at this, and the plebeians were annoyed that no matter what laws for reform were ever proposed by the tribunes, no substantive change ever happened. The ex-consuls were found guilty and fined heavy sums.

The conflict between the orders had reached a stalemate. The plebeians had just enough power to make their voices heard and the patricians had sufficient power to keep the plebeians partially in check, but both sides were tired of the struggle. Livy records that the tribunes and patricians began to discuss reasonable compromises. The laws of Rome had never really been codified in the way other states had. Perhaps if an independent commission of plebeians and patricians could coordinate to write the laws, it could bring peace? The patricians agreed in principle, but wanted to have the committee be entirely composed of patricians.

While the compromise was being worked out, the people of Rome are said to have sent a delegation to Athens and to other Greek cities to investigate their laws and to bring back their findings. It is said by Livy that they went to Athens to copy the laws of Solon, which of course at this time would have been superseded by the more thoroughgoing democracy under the leadership of Pericles. Some scholars find this account anachronistic and argue that it was unlikely to have happened.

Mural of Odysseus slaying the Cyclops from the
Tomb of the Orcus

Elsewhere in Italy, the Greeks of Syracuse, operating from their base at Ischia on the bay of Naples, seem to have attacked and raided the Etruscan coastlines. This probably had little direct impact on the Romans, apart perhaps to make them appreciate the power of the Greek cities.

In the year 453 Sextus Quintilius Varus and Publius Curiatus Fistus Trigeminus were elected consuls in Rome. According to Livy, the delegation that had travelled abroad looking for laws, did not return that year, so there were no political dissensions.

There was said to have been a great famine and pestilence in that year. One of the consuls and four of the tribunes of the plebs died of the sickness at that time.

In the year 452 Caius Menenius and Publius Sestius Capitolinus were elected consuls in Rome. This year saw the return of the envoys from Athens, presumably bringing back something to justify their time away from Rome. The tribunes now were keen to actually act upon the compromise suggestion and create a fixed series of laws; something that we might refer to as akin to a constitution. The patricians were still not sure that they wished to embark on a project, which would necessarily see the powers of the consuls curtailed. However, pressure began to mount on them. One of the consuls, Sestius, argued before the Senate that something must be done and suggested that the commission be composed of ten men to revise the laws.

In the year 451 Appius Claudius Crassus Sabinus Regillensis and Titus Genucius Augurinus were elected consuls in Rome. The question of a commission to re-examine the laws was now becoming a necessity, so the patricians finally decided to allow this. The only point on which they would not budge was that they would not allow any of the ten commissioners to be plebeians. The plebeians eventually conceded the point on the understanding that the recent Lex Icilia and other laws concerning the plebeians would be left alone (e.g. that the commissioners would not remove the tribunes of the plebeians).

Once the two classes were agreed, the consuls and the tribunes of the plebs stepped down from their posts. There were ten people appointed, known as Decemvirs. They each held the power of supreme magistrate and there could be no appeal from them. Their position was probably meant to only be temporary, but it seems unclear if there were fixed limits placed upon them. The ten decemvirs were composed of the two consuls for that year, as well as the ex-consul Sestius from the previous year, as he had helped propose the idea in the Senate. Their rule is known as the First Decemvirate.

Mural and inscription from the Tomb of the Orcus

After deliberating for some months, and after extensive consultation with the people, the decemvirs displayed their proposed law codes on ten tablets in the Forum. The ten tablets, or tables, dealt with the rights of the people in courts and trials, debts, family law, property law, public law and sacred law. The exact text has not been preserved, but scholars have some knowledge of the contents of the tables. It is possible that the laws may have been written in a type of poetry, to make it easier for the plebeians to remember them, although this is not proven. The laws were approved by the assembly of the people and by the Senate.

As far as the wisdom and foresight of ten men admitted, they had established equal laws for all, for highest and lowest alike; there was, however, more weight in the intelligence and advice of many men.
Titus Livius, Ab Urbe Condita, 3.34, written around 18BC

The people, both plebeian and patricians had generally been quite happy under the rule of the decemvirs. There were also a number of additions and corrections that had to be made. It was decided that there would be an additional two tables added to the law. The decemvirs were elected for another year. One of the decemvirs, Appius Claudius, oversaw the election.

In the year 450 ten decemvirs, led by Appius Claudius, were elected to power in Rome, as the Second Decemvirate. They had been tasked with writing and approving the final two tablets of the laws. However, while they were working on these tables, the number of lictors (guards armed with sticks to beat people and axes to execute them) were increased to 120, a sizeable force in a city of that size, particularly as bearing arms within Rome was forbidden.

The decemvirs had previously been quite popular in the city, but now that they had assumed a more forbidding aspect and showed no signs of relinquishing power, they became feared. Appius Claudius was seen as being the ringleader and perhaps to have planned the entire decemvirate as a way of making himself a permanent dictator for life, or perhaps even a king.

Etruscan hoplite figurine

The Forum was filled with one hundred and twenty lictors, and they bore the axes tied up in the "fasces." The decemvirs explained it by saying that as they were invested with absolute power of life and death, there was no reason for the axes being removed. They presented the appearance of ten kings, and manifold fears were entertained not only by the lowest classes but even by the foremost of the senators.
Titus Livius, Ab Urbe Condita, 3.36, written around 18BC

The final two tables of the law were published and with these tables the justification for the decemvirs was gone. The laws themselves were generally held to be quite just. But those who had proposed them were seen as dangerous to both the plebeians and the patricians. The patricians in particular began to retreat from the city of Rome and go to their estates in the country rather than run the risk of antagonising the city's rulers.

In the year 449 the Second Decemvirate continued in power in Rome, despite their purpose being fulfilled and without standing for re-election. This was now seen as an attack on the state itself, but the plebeians and the patricians were too divided to really know how to combat it. Both groups feared and hated the decemviri, but also fear and hated each other.

The Sabines and the Aequi invaded Roman territory and the decemvirs tried to raise troops. There was opposition to this. Two patricians, Lucius Valerius Potitus and Marcus Horatius Barbatus denounced the decemvirs in the Senate. Eventually however, the decemvirs were able to gather soldiers enough to prosecute the war. In the event it turned out that the decemvirs themselves were not great military commanders and they experienced no successes in the field that would have justified their leadership.

Instead of meeting with success, the decemvirs were faced with near open revolt, as some of their plebeian soldiers spoke about restoring the tribunate. A suspicious death in ambush of one of the plebeian spokesmen infuriated the troops even further, as the decemvirs were strongly suspected of his murder.

Etruscan pseudo-red-figure pottery

What happened next is the subject of much debate. I will summarise it briefly here, but it is written in much greater detail in Livy. It is written that Appius Claudius conceived a lust for the daughter, Verginia, of one of the prominent plebeians, Verginius. She was betrothed to another prominent plebeian, named Icilius, who had probably proposed the agrarian law that saw the plebeians take some of the land on the Aventine some years earlier. To take possession of the girl, Appius had one of his friends declare publicly that the girl was actually his slave. When the matter went to court Appius was about to rule in the favour of his friend, but the trial was postponed while her father Verginius was summoned from the camp.

When Verginius returned to Rome, Appius made the judgement that Verginia was a slave and was to be taken into custody. One of the powers held by the decemvirs was that their word was law and that from their judgements there was no appeal. Rather than see his daughter be taken as a slave to be used as the concubine of Appius, Verginius stabbed and killed his daughter Verginia.

…There, snatching up a butcher's knife, he plunged it into her breast, saying, "In this the only way in which I can, I vindicate, my child, thy freedom." Then, looking towards the tribunal, "By this blood, Appius, I devote thy head to the infernal gods."
Titus Livius, Ab Urbe Condita, 3.48, written around 18BC

Verginius fled the scene, while Icilius roused the people. Appius ordered Icilius arrested in the streets but the lictors were driven back by the people, supported by the two renegade senators who had opposed the decemviri in the Senate house. Appius mounted a podium to address the people, but Valerius and Horatius followed him and ordered the lictors to abandon Appius, who was no longer an elected magistrate, but merely a private citizen acting against the laws. Appius fled.

Valerius, assuming the tone of authority, ordered the lictors to cease attendance on one who held no official position, on which Appius, thoroughly cowed, and fearing for his life, muffled his head with his toga and retreated into a house near the Forum, without his adversaries perceiving his flight.
Titus Livius, Ab Urbe Condita, 3.49, written around 18BC

Verginius fled to the camp of the army that was fighting the Aequi, where he told the impassioned tale of injustice and crime. The army fighting the Aequi abandoned the war and marched to the Aventine Hill where they awaited the word of the Senate. The soldiers on the Aventine elected ten military tribunes.

Etruscan bronze figurine of horse and rider

Upon hearing of this, the army that was fighting the Sabines also elected ten military tribunes as well, possibly under the instigation of Icilius, who had been betrothed to Verginia. They marched through the city in full armour, which was highly illegal, to join the other soldiers on the Aventine Hill.

The Senate was unclear as to what to do. The people refused to deal with any patricians except Valerius and Horatius, who had stood by them against Appius. Valerius and Horatius refused to negotiate on behalf of the Senate unless the decemvirs first resigned. The decemvirs refused to resign until the last two law tables were made into laws.

To show that the plebeians were united and that their tribunes must be restored, the plebeians once more deserted the city to go to the Sacred Mount. This was effectively a general strike and is referred to as the Second Secession of the Plebs. The city was abandoned except for the patricians and their slaves wandering through the empty streets.

This forced the Senate into action and the decemvirs were finally persuaded to resign. Before doing so, they reminded the senators that the decemvirs were all patricians and that they should be protected as patricians. Valerius and Horatius were sent as patrician envoys to meet with Icilius, who represented the plebeians.

Icilius demanded the restoration of the tribunes of the plebs, the restoration of the right of appeal, an amnesty for any rebellion against the decemvirs and lastly, for the decemvirs to be handed over to the people to be executed. Valerius and Horatius agreed to all the points save the last one, saying that the decemvirs could be tried under the laws once order was restored to the state.

Apulo-Corinthian helmet, much wider than normal
Corinthian helmets and with smaller apertures

"Is our State never to enjoy any respite from punishments inflicted either by the patricians on the Roman plebs, or by the plebs on the patricians? You need the shield rather than the sword."
Valerius and Horatius addressing Icilius, Titus Livius, Ab Urbe Condita, 3.53, written around 18BC

The senators took the proposals back to the Senate and the decemvirs, hearing that they were not to be immediately punished, accepted these terms. The people flocked back to Rome and assembled on the Aventine where they elected new tribunes, among whom were Verginius, Icilius and another noted plebeian named Duillius.

Valerius (Lucius Valerius Potitus) and Horatius (Marcus Horatius Barbatus) were elected as consuls in Rome and the reign of the decemvirs was over, never to be returned to in Rome. New laws were proposed, known as the Lex Valeria Horatia. These laws ensured a number of rights for the plebeians. The decisions of the plebeian council were binding upon all the people, not just plebeians. The right of appeal was made sacrosanct. Never again would a normal magistrate be able to deny a plaintiff the right to appeal. It is unclear if this applied to the temporary office of dictator however. Finally the tribunes of the plebs were restored to their previous position under the law.

The remaining laws proposed by the decemvirs were passed and the laws inscribed on Twelve Tables of Bronze (or possibly ivory, but more likely bronze) that were on display to all the public. It was said that three centuries later Roman schoolchildren still memorised these laws during their schooldays.

A later illustration showing the Twelve Tables on display

The consuls brought it to conclusion; that is, of the Twelve Tables, as they are called, ten had been drawn up, and the consuls wrote into law the two remaining. After the legislation they had undertaken had been concluded, the consuls engraved the laws on twelve bronze tablets and affixed them to the Rostra before the Senate-house. And the legislation as it was drawn up, since it is couched in such brief and pithy language, has continued to be admired by men down to our own day.
Diodorus Siculus, Library of History, written circa 40BC

Then began the prosecution of the decemvirs. The focus of the plebeian anger lay upon Appius Claudius Crassus Sabinus Regillensis (to give him his full name). He was accused and brought to trial by none other than Verginius; the man who had murdered his own daughter rather than have her handed over to Appius. Verginius launched a bitter tirade against Appius and Appius was condemned. Appius then, either in seriousness or in irony, appealed. Verginius was furious that Appius could appeal, as he had denied all right to appeal in his rule. Appius shouted that if he, who had been the mightiest in the state, could find no justice in the laws, what guarantees could they hold for the powerless?

Appius had nothing to hope for in the protection of the tribunes or the verdict of the people. Nevertheless he called upon the tribunes, and when none intervened to stay proceedings and he was seized by the apparitor, he said, "I appeal." This single word, the protection of liberty, uttered by those lips which had so lately judicially deprived a person of her freedom, produced a general silence.
Titus Livius, Ab Urbe Condita, 3.56, written around 18BC

The mood of the people would not suffer the insolence of Appius and appeal or no appeal, he was dragged away to prison. Rather than awaiting his punishment, it is said that Appius hanged himself in his cell. It is at least possible that he was murdered on the orders of the tribunes rather than risking any chance of an actual appeal. Appius' family was one of the wealthiest and most influential in Rome and even if a member of their house was hated by all, they were still duty-bound to defend him.

Another of the decemvirs, Spurius Oppius, was taken to prison after being accused of crimes, in this case an unjust flogging of one of the plebeians that had taken place under the rule of the decemvirs. He too conveniently committed suicide in prison before his trial. The other decemvirs went into exile and the patricians once more feared plebeian influence.

Etruscan bronze figurine of a hoplite

The consuls Valerius and Horatius raised armies to fight against the neighbours of Rome, the Aequi, the Sabines and the Volscians, all of whom had been ravaging the lands of Rome and their allies while Rome was in turmoil. The two consuls fought a cautious war, letting their enemies become overconfident, before catching their foes off guard and winning victories against them.

As the patricians were annoyed at Valerius and Horatius, the Senate denied them the honour of a triumph, despite both consular armies winning victories. This was because the consuls were held to be favouring the plebeians and risking the power and influence of the patrician class. The plebeian tribune Icilius then put the question to the people and forced the matter through, granting triumphs to the consuls. This led to renewed hatred between the two orders.

The tribunes finally decided that they would try to all be re-elected the following year, to make a stand against the enmity of the patricians. They also seem to have wanted the consuls to stand for election again. The tribunes had occasionally been re-elected before, although the patricians hated it, but consuls had never served on successive years.

Fortunately Duillius, one of the tribunes who realised that the re-election of the tribunes and consuls would only serve to inflame the situation, or possibly lead to another tyranny such as the decemvirate, used his position as director of the elections to ensure that the tribunes were not re-elected. He implored Valerius and Horatius to stand down, which they did willingly. Thus ended one of the most eventful years in Roman political history.

As a contention had arisen, Duillius sent for the consuls and asked them what they intended to do about the consular elections. They replied that they should elect fresh consuls.
Titus Livius, Ab Urbe Condita, 3.56, written around 18BC

It's honestly not clear how much of it to believe. The story of Verginius stabbing his daughter Verginia, in an honour-killing to protect her from a lustful tyrant, is particularly suspicious. It sounds far too similar to the death of Lucretia, who killed herself after being raped by Prince Tarquin, and which led to the collapse of the Roman monarchy some six decades previously. It would be a little too coincidental that Rome was unable to change governments without a woman dying over honour. The Twelve Tables certainly existed, but did the decemvirs act the way they did? Were the laws of Valerius and Horatius enacted at this time? There are later laws that seem very similar to these. If the laws were already in place, why were they rewritten into law?

Apulo-Corinthian helmet with boar decorations

There is a great deal in the story that does not make sense and it seems that it seems to be a strange story even for Livy. His account jumps around somewhat. It is likely that there was a popular tradition in Rome about this time, perhaps in the form of a ballad or a song; that had warped the remembering of the times. It is certain that many things happened in this year, but exactly what I cannot say. The story itself though is fascinating, with the scheming Appius, the tragic Verginia, the hate-filled Verginius, the sly Icilius, the honourable Valerius and Horatius, and the sensible Duillius. For the characters alone it is worth remembering. Livy tells it better than I do and I can only recommend reading his work.

In the year 448 Lars Herminius Aquilinus and Titus Verginius Tricostus Caeliomontanus were elected consuls in Rome. Thanks to the efforts of Duellius, only five tribunes were elected, as all of the other votes had gone to the tribunes of the year before, whom Duellius had disqualified. Duellius ordered that the five tribunes use their authority to appoint tribunes to make up the other five (there appear to have been ten tribunes of the plebs at this time). This was done, and to avoid conflicts with the patricians, very inoffensive candidates were chosen, including two patricians.

To have patricians defending the rights of plebeians seemed unfair to many and one tribune named Lucius Trebonius proposed a new law. This would stop any future co-opting or appointment of tribunes, rather the elections would continue as long as they had to, until the full number were appointed. The patricians quite liked the existing arrangement and tried to block Trebonius, but he was too canny a politician and the law passed, becoming known as the Lex Tribonia. For his skill and unpleasantness at defeating the patricians he became known as Lucius Trebonius Asper, meaning Lucius Trebonius the Prickly.

Early Aes Signatum

Around this time, in the mid-fifth the Roman state seems to have adopted a type of currency known as the aes signatum, meaning "Stamped Bronze". These were bronze ingots of fixed weight and carrying stamps, often of bulls. They may have been in circulation earlier, but this is not clear, and if they were, they were likely melted down and recycled. The crudity of this coinage compared to the Greek creations at the same time is a good reminder that Rome was still quite a small and insignificant city. Had it not later risen to greatness, none of the events that I have mentioned in the blog would be remembered. How many other cities had similar tales that have since been forgotten?

In the year 447 Marcus Geganius Macerinus and Gaius Julius Iulus were elected consuls in Rome. Their tenure seems to have been marked by peace both internally and externally. There was the possibility of war against the Aequi and the Volsci, but the consuls deemed that the threat was not serious and rather than take the plebeians away from their farms to risk their lives on campaign, that the people could rest from war for a year.

In the year 446 Titus Quinctius Capitolinus Barbatus and Agrippa Furius Fusus were elected consuls in Rome. The Aequi had returned to raid Roman lands once more, but the people were not eager to take up arms. Titus Quinctius, who had been consul three times previously, upbraided the people and taunted them that perhaps they only had courage in standing up to patricians instead of their enemies. Stung by the taunts, the people allowed the consuls to raise armies. The consuls marched against the foe and won a great victory at the Battle of Corbio. Upon returning to the city they refused to ask for a triumph. Livy suspects that this was because Valerius and Horatius had been refused a triumph by the Senate in previous years for a greater victory, but this is of course a guess.

In this year, the allied cities of Ardea and Aricia asked Rome to help them resolve a territory dispute between them. They would accept whatever decision Rome made about who owned the land. The Romans were about to give their decision when an old Roman, who claimed to have been at the conquest of Corioli many decades earlier, said that this land belonged to Corioli originally, meaning that the true owners of the land were the Romans. The people found this wonderfully convenient and voted to keep it themselves. The consuls were disgusted at the greed of the people (although the patrician class was excellent at grabbing public land whenever available) and the allied towns of Ardea and Aricia were angered and insulted at this injustice.

In the year 445 Marcus Genucius Augurinus and Gaius Curtius Philo were elected consuls in Rome. One of the tribunes of the plebs, Gaius Canuleius, proposed a law allowing for patricians and plebeians to marry. The patricians were annoyed at this and considered that it would pollute their bloodlines. The tribunes then discussed the possibility of plebeians being allowed to become consuls. The patricians were so horrified that they heard the news of impending war with happiness.

Etruscan gold earrings that had been exported to
what is now the lands of the Czech Republic
showing the high demand for Etruscan goods in Central
Europe

After the Roman land grab in the previous year, the people of Ardea had revolted against Rome. There were the usual border troubles with the Volscians and Aequi. The consuls tried to defer discussion of the laws by attempting to levy troops. Once the plebeians were under arms they were subject to the consular authority and could not engage in politics, which partly explains why the Romans were so often at war, as the patricians found war very useful in shutting people up.

Gaius Canuleius refused to be silenced however and made impassioned speeches, blocking the levying of troops. Eventually one of the consuls, when being baited by Canuleius as to why no intermarriage could take place, blurted out that the children of mixed marriages could not make the correct sacrifices to the gods. This was taken as a terrible insult to the plebeians and the law was pushed through, known as the Lex Canuleia, allowing marriages between the orders to take place.

This bitterly exasperated the plebeians, for they believed that they were held incompetent to take the auspices because they were hateful to the immortal gods. As they had got a most energetic leader in their tribune and were supporting him with the utmost determination, the controversy ended in the defeat of the patricians.
Titus Livius, Ab Urbe Condita, 4.6, written around 18BC

The people then pushed for plebeians to be allowed to the consulate, but on this the patricians stood firm and refused. Eventually a compromise was reached. The patricians would hold the consulate and no plebeian could be elected to it. However, the power of consuls could in theory be held by a military tribune. A new office was created known as the Military Tribune with Consular Power, or Consular Tribunes, as they were commonly referred to as. This new office, which held consular powers, but not the name of consul, could be held by either patricians or plebeians.

Etruscan bronze figurine
of a maenad

Elsewhere in Italy, to the south, near the city of Croton, the Greek cities of Sparta, Athens and others founded a new city called Thurii. This had been founded at the request of the Sybarites who had been repeatedly expelled from their lands by the neighbouring city of Croton. It was felt that Croton would not dare risk the wrath of both Athens and Sparta. Many from all over the Greek lands came to Thurii in the next few years.

In the year 444 Aulus Sempronius Atratinus, Titus Cloelius Siculus and Lucius Atilius Luscus were elected as consular tribunes in Rome. Livy notes that despite the fact that these men were consular tribunes rather than consuls, they were all patricians. He then notes that perhaps the reason the consular tribunes were appointed was because the military threats were greater this year and that three generals were required. The three tribunes resigned their offices after three months and an interrex was appointed to oversee the election of Lucius Papirius Mugillanus and Lucius Sempronius Atratinus as consuls in Rome. If there had been a real military threat it had clearly faded and it seems that Ardea made peace with Rome once again without the need for war.

In the year 443 Marcus Geganius Macerinus and Titus Quinctius Capitolinus Barbatus were elected as consuls in Rome. In or around this time the office of censor was founded. This was originally a magistracy to oversee the taking of the census, but eventually morphed into a role of protector of public morals. The taking of the census was originally a function of the consuls, but the senators may have been unwilling to see this function fall into the hands of the plebeian magistrates at some point in the future.

In this year the people of Ardea had fallen into a bloody civil war between the aristocrats and the commoners. This is a salutary reminder to us that despite how awful Roman politics may sound to modern ears, that their political life was a lot more peaceful than that of other cities. Numerous Greek cities around this time have civil wars between oligarchic and democratic parties. In this case the common people had called in the Volscians to help destroy the wealthy. The wealthy appealed to Rome.

Marcus Geganius Macerinus led an army to defeat the Volscians and capture their leader. In the meantime Titus Quinctius Capitolinus Barbatus, who was holding his fifth consulship, maintained peace in Rome, being a highly respected figure by plebeian and patrician alike.

Around this time, in the city of Thurii in the south of Italy, the new Greek colonists expelled the people of Sybaris from the city. This was ironic, as the colonists had been called in to help preserve the freedom of the Sybarites from their neighbours. Clearly things just went badly from the Sybarites. They fled to found yet another city in Italy, known as Sybaris on the Traeis. It was only a small town though and never achieved greatness.

Etruscan bronze figure of a hoplite

In the year 442 Marcus Fabius Vibulanus and Postumus Aebutius Elva Cornicen were elected consuls in Rome. They made a decree to repopulate Ardea after the devastation of the civil war there and in doing so, gave priority to the Rutulian peoples, as Ardea was a Rutulian city. They also included the disputed land in the settlement, thus depriving the people of Rome from the possibility of taking the land. Land commissioners were appointed to distribute the land. These commissioners faced the anger of the plebeians, who had wanted the land and the patricians, who had expected the commissioners to give them some of the land as a favour. The commissioners gave the land to the Rutulians and then stayed in Ardea for fear of prosecution when they returned to Rome.

In the year 441 Gaius Furius Pacilus Fusus and Marcus Papirius Crassus were elected consuls in Rome. The year was peaceful, except for a short-lived attempt to pass an agrarian law in the Senate by a tribune named Poetilius. Games were held this year as well and the land seems to have had peace.

In the year 440 Proculus Geganius Macerinus and Menenius Lanatus were elected consuls in Rome. That year saw a great famine in the land and the tensions between the classes flared up once more. Finally a patrician named Lucius Minucius was named as a Controller of Supplies and attempted to purchase grain from the surrounding regions. These measures were not very successful however.

The misfortunes began with a famine, owing either to the year being unfavourable to the crops, or to the cultivation of the land being abandoned for the attractions of political meetings and city life; both causes are assigned. The senate blamed the idleness of the plebeians, the tribunes charged the consuls at one time with dishonesty, at another with negligence.
Titus Livius, Ab Urbe Condita, 4.12, written around 18BC

Another man, a wealthy plebeian named Spurius Maelius, spent much of his own money buying grain and distributing it to the people for a very low price. This measure saved a good many lives and bought Spurius Maelius a great deal of popularity. Many began to whisper that he had ambitions beyond that of a private citizen, but there was no proof of ill-intentions, and he had saved many lives.

Elsewhere in Italy the recently founded Greek city of Thurii made an alliance with the Messapian city state that would later be known as Brundisium. This was doubtless because the city of Thurii was soon embroiled in a war with the existing Greek city of Taras, and the Messapians were traditional enemies of the Tarantines.

And thus the period draws to a close. It had seen some political changes, but none more dramatic than the period of the First and Second Decemvirates. Rome continued to lurch from one political crisis to the next, but somehow without collapsing into civil war like so many other cities of the time. This cohesion and patriotism, the ability to face external foes in cooperation with your bitterest political enemies; this was a true strength of the early Roman Republic and one that is not yet I would argue, fully understood to this day.

Apulo-Corinthian helmet: I love how ridiculous these
helmets are

Primary Sources
Diodorus Siculus, Library of History, written circa 40BC
Titus Livius, Ab Urbe Condita, written around 18BC
Titus Livius, Ab Urbe Condita, written around 18BC (a different translation)
Fasti Triumphales, written circa 19BC
Fasti Capitolini, written circa AD13

Secondary Sources:
Tomb of the Orcus (in Italian)

Related Blog Posts:
479-460BC in Rome
459-440BC in the Near East
459-450BC in Greece
449-440BC in Greece
439-420BC in Rome

499-480BC in Rome

Etruscan helmet from this period. Roman artefacts are
scarce at this time, so many illustrations will be of
Etruscan artefacts from the cities to the north of Rome

This blog post will look at the years 499-480BC in Roman history, touching briefly on other parts of Italian history where possible. The time of the monarchy in Roman history is filled with legends and romances of later times. I have told some of the stories that have come down to us in previous blogs, but I've made it clear that many of these are myths and legends. As these myths and legends did not fill much space, I had previously included these among details of Greek history. But from the early Republic onwards, I feel that Roman history becomes detailed enough, and credible enough, to warrant separate treatment.

The primary source for the period is Livy, in his monumental work Ab Urbe Condita, which means “From the Foundation of the City”. He wrote this in the time of Augustus, so it is much later than the events described. Other sources for this time include tiny fragments from Diodorus Siculus, who wrote about this time period and Rome, but about a generation or two earlier than Livy. His history is only really preserved from around 481BC onwards, so is of little direct use for this time. Dionysius of Halicarnassus and some other historians contain some information about the period also.

The reader should take the dates and the events with a pinch of salt. Dating was an inexact science and there are disagreements on interregnums and other events. Every date in this blog may be incorrect. There is a probable nine-year discrepancy. This is due to Livy calculating an interregnum as 10 years and others calculating it as 1 year. Most dates for the Roman Republic follow Livy's dates, which makes the dates somewhat earlier than what they may have actually been. One should also remember that the Roman years fluctuated compared to our own, so an event that I have mentioned as happening in one year may have happened at least partly in the following year.

Manuscript of Livy's work

Also, many of Livy's sources were the personal histories of the wealthy families of Rome. These were immensely proud and their recollections of their ancestors may be highly fanciful. Some of these records, as we have seen with some of the stories of Tarquin, may in fact have been transposed from Greek history. I will call out these when I can.

In the year 499BC Titus Aebutius Elva and Gaius Vetusius Geminus Cicurinus were consuls for the year. The Romans had two consuls every year, who gave their names to the year, led armies, and to all intents and purposes acted as kings. They were however elected, and could only hold power for one year. As there were two consuls, one could act as a check upon the other.

In this year Livy says that the small settlement of Fidenae, lying a few miles from Rome, between Rome and the wealthy Etruscan city of Veii, was besieged and taken by the Romans. There was war between Rome and the neighbouring Latin League. The Latin League included the cities of Ardea Aricia, Cora, Lanuvium, Lavinium, Pometia, Tibur and Tusculum. These were each smaller cities than Rome, but their combined forces were able to meet the Roman citizens in the field. Livy places the major Battle of Lake Regillus in this year, but it probably happened a few years later.

The Capitoline Wolf as seen in the Capitoline Museum

Around this time, it was traditionally thought that the Capitoline Wolf, a famous sculpture found in Rome and now held to be a symbol of the Roman Republic, was made. Echoing the legend of Romulus and Remus, this sculpture showed a she-wolf. Later sculptors added two small children beneath the wolf in a rather different art style. Modern analysis has shown that the wolf is probably in fact much later, possibly from the time of Charlemagne. I was unaware of this when I saw the wolf and was rather sad to learn it. As the name suggests, it currently resides in the Capitoline Museum in Rome and is well worth visiting if you are ever in the area.

In the year 498 Quintus Cloelius Siculus and Titus Lartius were consuls for the year. Titus Lartius had been consul once before and had also been dictator three years previously. The office of Dictator was one where the Roman people would temporarily suspend the constitution and allow an absolute ruler to step in to solve a crisis. Because the city of Rome was so small, and its enemies so near at hand, the crises were usually resolved in weeks rather than years, so the dictators would normally hand power back to the consuls as quickly as possible. Titus Lartius had been the first Roman dictator.

In the year 497 Aulus Sempronius Atratinus and Marcus Minucius Augurinus were consuls. This pair would later serve as consuls six years later, which might lead to problems with dating. During this year the Temple of Saturn was built in the Roman Forum. Some columns of a much later version of the temple still stand close to the Capitoline Hill, near the much later Arch of Septimius Severus. The temple was rebuilt in 283BC and 42BC. This may have been connected with the institution of the Festival of the Saturnalia. This was a winter festival that involved role reversal, gambling, gift giving and much celebration. However, the festival, like all festivals, changed and evolved over time, so it's hard to know exactly how the ancient Romans celebrated it at any given time.

Renaissance painting of the Battle of Lake Regillus

In the year 496 Aulus Postumius Albus Regillensis and Titus Verginius Tricostus Caeliomontanus were consuls of Rome. It was possibly during this year that the Battle of Lake Regillus was fought, although it may have been three years earlier or three years later. This was a battle fought against an alliance of nearby cities, known as the Latin League by today's scholars. During the time of the Roman monarchy, Rome had possibly been treated as the head of the Latin League, but during the confusing days of the early Republic and the wars with Lars Porsena, the Latin League had more or less become independent.

The exiled king of Rome, Tarquin the Proud, was living in Tusculum, one of the Latin cities, under the protection of Octavius Mamilius, who was a prominent noble and dictator of that city. The Latins united under the leadership of Mamilius to make one last effort to restore the Tarquins to Rome.

The Romans elected Aulus Postumius Albus as dictator. He appointed Titus Aebutius, who had been consul three years previously, as Master of Horse (cavalry commander) and the Romans marched out to meet their enemy. The two sides met near Lake Regillus and a hard-fought battle ensued. There are many tales of glorious hand-to-hand conflicts between the leaders and generals on the two sides, but most of these stories probably came to Livy through the personal histories of the nobility of Rome, most of whom had ancestors who had fought on both sides of the struggle. So, the exact tales of who did what should not be taken too literally. Suffice it to say that Romans won the struggle after their cavalry made a charge, abandoned their horses and fought on foot. The leader of the Latins, Octavius Mamilius, was slain in the heat of battle and the Roman victory was assured. Tarquin the Proud would never again be king in Rome.

Modern drawing of the Dioscuri at the Battle of Lake Regillus

The Latin war which had been threatening for some years now at last broke out. A. Postumius, the Dictator, and T. Aebutius, Master of the Horse, advanced with a large force of infantry and cavalry to the Lake Regillus in the district of Tusculum and came upon the main army of the enemy. On hearing that the Tarquins were in the army of the Latins, the passions of the Romans were so roused that they determined to engage at once. The battle that followed was more obstinately and desperately fought than any previous ones had been. For the commanders not only took their part in directing the action, they fought personally against each other, and hardly one of the leaders in either army, with the exception of the Roman Dictator, left the field unwounded. Tarquinius Superbus, though now enfeebled by age, spurred his horse against Postumius, who in the front of the line was addressing and forming his men. He was struck in the side and carried off by a body of his followers into a place of safety.
Titus Livius, Ab Urbe Condita, 2.19, written around 18BC

Like the near contemporary Battle of Marathon in Greece, numerous legends sprang up around the battle. The most prominent of these was about the Dioscuri, the hero-twins of Greek and Roman mythology, known as Castor and Pollux. Some said that they had seen the twins on horseback riding against the Latins. A temple in the Forum was made shortly after. A much later temple dedicated to this legendary pair still has a few columns remaining today in the Forum.

In the year 495 Appius Claudius Sabinus Regillensis and Publius Servilius Priscus Structus were consuls of Rome. Appius Claudius Sabinus Regillensis was the founder of the gens Claudia (the Claudian family) and was in fact a Sabine immigrant. He had been a wealthy Sabine aristocrat and had favoured peace with Rome, but when the Sabines decided to instead go to war, he emigrated to nearby Rome and there became one of the most prominent aristocrats. His descendants would be some of the most important people in Roman history. In this year, the Roman constitution was amended to add the Claudian tribe, which was now an additional voting bloc in Rome.

Map showing the tribes and cities of central Italy c.500BC

There was a brief war with the neighbouring Volsci people, who had contemplated helping the Latins in the war of the previous year. A new settlement was made at the small colony of Signia. Even better news arrived from the nearby city of Cumae. Tarquin the Proud was dead and there was now no real chance of the restoration of the monarchy. This boded well for the Republic, but it also meant that the people and the nobles, who up until now had mostly cooperated, were now less worried about external threats and more concerned with social struggles.

Having had their lands raided, the Volscians sent emissaries to the Latins to stir them up against Rome. However, having suffered a grievous and painful defeat at Lake Regillus, the Latins were in no mood for another struggle and handed over the emissaries to the Romans. The Romans were so pleased with this that they handed over the prisoners of war that had been taken at Lake Regillus. With these mutual gestures of goodwill, the Latins and the Romans began to think of reconciling their differences.

But after their defeat at Lake Regillus the Latins were so incensed against everyone who advocated a resumption of hostilities that they did not even spare the Volscian envoys, who were arrested and conducted to Rome. There they were handed over to the consuls and evidence was produced showing that the Volscians and Hernicians were preparing for war with Rome. When the matter was brought before the senate, they were so gratified by the action of the Latins that they sent back six thousand prisoners who had been sold into slavery, and also referred to the new magistrates the question of a treaty which they had hitherto persistently refused to consider. The Latins congratulated themselves upon the course they had adopted, and the advocates of peace were in high honour. They sent a golden crown as a gift to the Capitoline Jupiter.
Titus Livius, Ab Urbe Condita, 2.22, written around 18BC

Etruscan war chariot from a slightly
earlier period

The Volscians were in no way deterred by the seizure of their envoys and carried on with their preparations for war. The Roman preparations seem to have been delayed by the breaking out of civil strife. The common people of Rome had gone into great debt during their part of the fighting for the city of Rome. The nobles had also fought, but they had slaves and servants to manage their farms in their absence, so they did not suffer from the constant campaigns. Now some of the poorer Roman citizens were being sold into slavery to cover their debts to the nobles. This led to the first outbreak of what came to be known as the Struggle of the Orders, the underlying causes of which would lead to civil strife that would rage for the next four centuries.

Of the two consuls, the newcomer Appius was said to have called for the people to be suppressed, while the consul Servilius felt sorry for the people and wanted to help them. Servilius made a number of promises to the people, that they should never be enslaved for debts, and proceeded to muster an army and beat back the invading Volscians, as well as a small raiding force of the Sabines. The Aurunci peoples threatened war as well, but these were defeated in another engagement. The Romans returned to their city in triumph, where Appius ordered three hundred Volscian hostages beheaded as punishment for the Volscian invasion.

Having fought hard in the service of the consuls and Rome, the people expected that they would now gain relief from their debt burdens, as Servilius had sworn. But Appius Claudius then refused to honour his colleague's promises and Servilius didn't bother to force his colleague to honour his word. Thus the promises of the consul were held by the commons to be cheaply broken and both consuls became hated by the masses. Appius Claudius became the leader of the aristocrats who were opposed to any concessions to the mass of the people.

Etruscan jewellery

A temple of Mercury had been completed and it was a matter of dispute among the consuls as to who should have the honour of dedicating it. The matter went to the people, who, to show their disgust at both consuls, voted for a lowly centurion to have the honour. It was clear that both the aristocrats and the commoners held each other in high contempt.

In the year 494 Aulus Verginius Tricostus Caeliomontanus and Titus Veturius Geminus Cicurinus were consuls of Rome. This year the tensions between the people and the aristocracy came to a head. There were reports of the plebeians, or common people, gathering on the hills outside of Rome for secret meetings. These meetings were held to be a threat to the state by the nobles and the consuls were advised to use their authority to raise armies and crush any dissent. But the armies were composed of common people, who refused to be enrolled in the armies to attack themselves. This was very different from defending their lands and city against enemies.

The Senate, faced with the risk of civil war, debated the issue. A number of proposals were put forward, some harsh, some mild, but none harsher than the proposals of the consul of the previous year, Appius Claudius. He advocated appointing a dictator and using the power of the dictator to crush the plebs. This proposal won, and Appius was nearly appointed dictator himself, which probably would have caused civil war. Fortunately calmer heads prevailed and Manius Valerius Maximus was appointed Dictator.

The new Dictator made promises to the people to deal with their grievances, but first required that they enlist in the armies for that year. Valerius called up a large number of men, possibly up to forty-five thousand, which would be a vast number for a single city at this time. I am sceptical of the numbers, but it was probably a larger army than Rome had previously seen. There were three main threats; the Volsci, the Sabines and the Aequi. The new armies of Valerius marched against all three and won notable victories, before returning to Rome in triumph.

Italian jewellery from this time period

Valerius then went to the Senate to ask them to pass laws helping the people with their debts. But now that the wars had been won and there was no longer any need for the armies, the nobles in the Senate refused to act. Furious with their refusal, Valerius resigned his dictatorship and passed power back to the consuls for the year, honoured by all the classes both for his compassion and his military achievements.

After the consul Vetusius had returned, Valerius introduced, as the very first business of the senate, the treatment of the men who had been marching to victory, and moved a resolution as to what decision they ought to come to with regard to the debtors. His motion was refused, on which he said, 'I am not acceptable as an advocate of concord. Depend upon it, you will very soon wish that the Roman plebs had champions like me. As far as I am concerned, I will no longer encourage my fellow-citizens in vain hopes, nor will I be Dictator in vain. Internal dissensions and foreign wars have made this office necessary to the commonwealth; peace has now been secured abroad, at home it is made impossible. I would rather be involved in the revolution as a private citizen than as Dictator.' So saying, he left the House and resigned his dictatorship. The reason was quite clear to the plebs; he had resigned office because he was indignant at the way they were treated. The non-fulfilment of his pledge was not due to him, they considered that he had practically kept his word and on his way home they followed him with approving cheers.
Titus Livius, Ab Urbe Condita, 2.31, written around 18BC

Head of the goddess Juno Sospita from Latium
circa 490BC

To prevent the army disbanding, the consuls tried to launch another campaign against the Aequi. The troops had sworn a sacred oath to serve Rome, which in the absence of the dictator, meant serving the hated consuls. There was talk of murdering the consuls to allow the people to escape from their oath, but this was held to be a sacrilege. They instead came up with a compromise solution. They would stay enrolled in the army of the consuls, but simply refuse to participate in any action whatsoever. The army marched to a nearby hill, a few miles from Rome, called the Sacred Mount (possibly the Aventine Hill, but more likely the Sacred Mount) and there they proceeded to do nothing, in a type of sit-down strike. This became known as the Secession of the Plebs.

It is said that the first idea was to put the consuls to death that the men might be discharged from their oath; then, on learning that no religious obligation could be dissolved by a crime, they decided, at the instigation of a certain Sicinius, to ignore the consuls and withdraw to the Sacred Mount, which lay on the other side of the Anio, three miles from the City. … There, without any commander, in a regularly entrenched camp, taking nothing with them but the necessaries of life, they quietly maintained themselves for some days, neither receiving nor giving any provocation.
Titus Livius, Ab Urbe Condita, 2.32, written around 18BC

This strike action of the army perplexed and terrified the aristocracy, who had few recourses. They finally chose to reconcile with the people and sent negotiators to try and reason with those on the Sacred Mount. A compromise was reached, allowing the plebeians to have some of their own officials. These would be known as Plebeian Tribunes, usually just referred to as Tribunes. A Tribune was originally just the leader of the Roman voting tribes, and did not seem to have much power. There had previously been an office known as the Tribune of the Celeres, which had been dissolved after the fall of Tarquin and mostly replaced with two military roles.

Etruscan jewellery

The Tribunes of the Plebs were two (or five: the sources are unclear) officials who would be elected from the plebeian classes and would be able to veto legislation from the consuls or the Senate. This would serve to protect the interests of the plebeian classes from the encroachments of the nobles. The persons of the tribunes were also made sacred, making it a sacrilege to attack them, which shows just how dangerous holding the position of tribune was thought to be.

To assist these Plebeian Tribunes the office of the Plebeian Aedile, was created. These were two officials, who had to be plebeian, who assisted the tribunes, but most particularly took care of the public buildings. They also protected the official laws and documents from being covertly edited by the consuls. With these concessions the First Secession of the Plebs came to an end and peace was temporarily restored between the two classes.

In the year 493 Postumius Cominius Auruncus and Spurius Cassius Viscellinus were elected as consuls of Rome. This was the second consulship for both men. Their election took place shortly before the ending of the Secession of the Plebs. War with the Volsci continued, but now the nearby Latin cities made a peace treaty with Rome that effectively unified the Latin League under Roman leadership. This greatly strengthened Rome, as it meant that not only would there be no further threat from the Latin cities, but that their armies would march to the defence of Rome, under Roman leadership. The treaty is known as the Foedus Cassianum, named after one of the consuls of that year.

The Romans were successful in their war with the Volsci and defeated them at the towns of Longula, Pollusca and Corioli. The town of Corioli was captured mainly through the courage of a young aristocrat named Gaius Marcius, who is said to have nearly single-handedly forced his way into the town, as the inhabitants were sallying out to aid a Volscian relief force. This desperate act of courage won the battle for the Romans and the young noble was honoured by receiving the name “Coriolanus” in recognition for his courage at Corioli.

Etruscan votive statuette

In the year 492 Titus Geganius Macerinus and Publius Minucius Augurinus were elected as consuls of Rome. There was a famine in the city and the lands of Rome. This was partly because of the disruption to planting during the Secession of the Plebs, but also due to the ongoing wars with the Volsci, who had no reason to sell grain to their enemies, or allow others to do so. Eventually grain shipments were procured from Etruria and Sicily. The Volscians were unable to capitalise on Roman weakness, as a severe plague broke out among the Volscians.

In the year 491 Marcus Minucius Augurinus and Aulus Sempronius Atratinus were elected as consuls of Rome. They had both been consuls together six years previously. They were responsible for distributing the grain that had been procured from Sicily and Etruria. But the war-hero Coriolanus bitterly opposed this measure, saying that the commoners had brought this on themselves by their behaviour in the Secession of the Plebs. If they wanted grain, they should relinquish the power of the tribunes. This was clearly a deeply unpopular opinion with the plebs, who banded together and eventually forced Coriolanus to go into exile. In our democratic times it is very hard to have any sympathy with someone who would prefer to let people starve than share power with others, but these were different times and apparently many aristocrats sympathised with Coriolanus.

Many were of opinion that the moment had come for putting pressure on the plebeians, and recovering the rights which had been wrested from the senate through the secession and the violence which accompanied it. Foremost among these was Marcius Coriolanus, a determined foe to the tribunician power. 'If,' he argued, 'they want their corn at the old price, let them restore to the senate its old powers. Why, then, do I, after being sent under the yoke, ransomed as it were from brigands, see plebeian magistrates, why do I see a Sicinius (one of the tribunes) in power? Am I to endure these indignities a moment longer than I can help? Am I, who could not put up with a Tarquin as king, to put up with a Sicinius? Let him secede now! Let him call out his plebeians, the way lies open to the Sacred Hill and to other hills. Let them carry off the corn from our fields as they did two years ago; let them enjoy the scarcity which in their madness they have produced! I will venture to say that after they have been tamed by these sufferings, they will rather work as labourers themselves in the fields than prevent their being cultivated by an armed secession.' 
Titus Livius, Ab Urbe Condita, 2.34, written around 18BC

Etruscan jewellery

In the year 490 Quintus Sulpicius Camerinus Cornutus and Spurius Lartius were elected as consuls of Rome. Spurius Lartius was one of those who is said to have stood with Horatio at the bridge in the war against Lars Porsena in the previous century. This was also his second consulship. Not much can be said of this year.

In the year 489 Gaius Julius Iulus and Publius Pinarius Mamercinus were elected consuls of Rome. Around this time, the Ludus Magna, or Great Games, were held in Rome and representatives of other towns and cities were invited to the games. During these games the Roman consuls are said to have received a warning from one of the leaders of the Volscians that the Volscian representatives were planning to attack and disrupt the games. Considering the tensions between the two nations, this was not implausible. The Volscians were suddenly and inexplicably expelled from Rome, to their great shock and disgust. They returned to their lands where Attius Tullius Aufidius, the Volscian noble who had stirred up the trouble, and the exiled Coriolanus of Rome, prepared to lead the Volscians to war against Rome.

Rome was divided and the plebeians, who had received tribunes, but no substantial debt relief or land reform, were still angry at the nobles. The Volscians had been beaten before and would be beaten again, but the Romans did not seem able to agree on raising an army. The Volscian forces began to ravage outlying territories of Rome.

In 488 Spurius Nautius Rutilus and Sextus Furius Medullinus were elected consuls of Rome. Rome was now in imminent danger from the Volscians, led by the Roman exile Coriolanus. Without agreement between patricians and plebeians an army could not be raised. The Volscians marched with impunity to the outer edges of the city and encamped there. Embassies were sent from Rome to plead for Coriolanus to relent, but he was inflexible in his resolve to punish his homeland until finally his wife and mother came out of the city. They begged Coriolanus to have pity on them and not to destroy his homeland. Coriolanus is said to have finally relented and retreated from the edges of Rome. The Volscians quarrelled with the allies, the Aequi, and the two sides fought a bloody battle that crippled both nations for the remainder of the campaign. In recognition of the great services of Coriolanus' wife and mother, a temple to Fortuna Muliebris (the Fortune of Women) was dedicated shortly thereafter.

A painting by Poussin showing Coriolanus being beseeched
by women to spare his homeland

When his mother ceased speaking, Coriolanus' wife and children embraced him, and all the women wept and bewailed their own and their country's fate. At last his resolution gave way. He embraced his family and dismissed them, and moved his camp away from the City. After withdrawing his legions from the Roman territory, he is said to have fallen a victim to the resentment which his action aroused, but as to the time and circumstances of his death the traditions vary.
Titus Livius, Ab Urbe Condita, 2.40, written around 18BC

Coriolanus was looked on as an almost tragic figure in later times. Shakespeare would write an eponymous play about him. But I have never been able to have any sympathy with Coriolanus. He was a courageous brat who had nothing but contempt for anyone who was not a noble. Until the very end he cared nothing for the rights of anyone but himself, preparing to destroy his country rather than allow his political opponents to have any concessions. He finally relented, but only at the very last minute. He lived in a different culture in a different time, but I find it a hard irony of history that we have a Shakespearean tragedy about the haughty Coriolanus and none about Aristides the Just, who was also exiled from Athens at a similar time period and for far less reason. This paragraph is not history, but merely a personal rant of my own.

In 487 Titus Sicinius Sabinus and Gaius Aquillius Tuscus were elected consuls of Rome. There were wars with the neighbouring Volscians and Hernici. The Volscian campaign was indecisive but the Hernici were defeated.

Etruscan jewellery

In 486 Spurius Cassius Viscellinus and Proculus Verginius Tricostus were elected consuls of Rome. Cassius had previously drafted the treaty that brought peace between the Latins and Rome. He now drafted another treaty to bring the defeated Hernici into the alliance. The terms were quite generous to the defeated people and while this was in fact a wise move, it was resented by some of the nobles and plebs who had wanted to extract more plunder and tribute from the conquered; preferring to have the chance to loot today rather than have allies tomorrow.

Cassius then proposed a redistribution of land. Much of the conquered land was too far from Rome to be tilled easily by the people of the city, but could be tilled by the servants of the nobles. Thus the nobles had made a lot of profit by taking a larger share of conquered land than they were entitled to. This led to extra profits, which enabled them to buy more land and so on and so forth. Cassius proposed that the extra land be taken off the nobles and given to the people. The nobles hated this proposal, as they stood to lose most of their wealth, and Cassius was opposed by nearly all of the aristocrats.

The Tarpeian Rock at the edge of the Capitoline Hill in
Rome

Even the plebs who stood to gain from the proposal turned against Cassius. The rumour spread that Cassius was seeking to become king. Cassius tried to propose a more obviously popular measure for the plebs to try and bring himself back into favour, but this backfired even further.

Of this Cassius intended to give half to the Latins and half to the Roman plebs. He contemplated adding to this a quantity of land which, he alleged, though State land, was occupied by private individuals. This alarmed many of the patricians, the actual occupiers, as endangering the security of their property. On public grounds, too, they felt anxious, as they considered that by this largess the consul was building up a power dangerous to liberty. Then for the first time an Agrarian Law was proposed, and never, from that day to the times within our own memory, has one been mooted without the most tremendous commotions. The other consul resisted the proposed grant. In this he was supported by the senate, whilst the plebs was far from unanimous in its favour. They were beginning to look askance at a boon so cheap as to be shared between citizens and allies, and they often heard the consul Verginius in his public speeches predicting that his colleague's gift was fraught with mischief, the land in question would bring slavery on those who took it, the way was being prepared for a throne. Why were the allies, he asked, and the Latin league included? 
Titus Livius, Ab Urbe Condita, 2.41, written around 18BC

A closer view of the Tarpeian Rock

In 485 Servius Cornelius Maluginensis and Quintus Fabius Vibulanus were elected consuls of Rome. The unfortunate Cassius was placed on trial, accused of seeking to overthrow the Republic and make himself king. He was found guilty and executed, perhaps by being hurled from the Tarpeian Rock. I have always found him a sympathetic figure. He dealt fairly and honestly with the defeated Latins and Hernici, brought them into alliance with Rome and thus strengthened his homeland. His proposed redistribution of the agrarian land was probably needed and it was a measure that might have brought peace between the plebeians and patricians.

I find it odd that Cassius was punished so severely in comparison to Coriolanus, who was merely exiled. But perhaps he was indeed trying to become king? Later records seem to suggest that some of his supporters were burned alive in the area near the Circus Maximus, which seems an even grimmer fate than the Tarpeian Rock.

This year saw the further defeat of the Volsci and the Aequi. The people were made unhappy because the consuls put the spoils of war towards the public treasury rather than distributing it among the troops. A temple of Castor and Pollux, possibly begun shortly after the Battle of Lake Regillus, seems to have been completed and dedicated around this time.

In the year 484 Caeso Fabius Vibulanus (who had prosecuted Cassius in the previous year) and Lucius Aemilius Mamercus were elected consuls of Rome. This year saw further wars against the Volsci and the Aequi, both of which saw Roman victories. The consuls were engaged in many disputes with the plebeian tribunes during this time, but no new powers were given to the tribunes.

In the year 483 Marcus Fabius Vibulanus and Lucius Valerius Potitus were elected consuls of Rome. The struggle for power between the tribunes of the plebs and the consuls continued. There was war with the Aequi and also with the city of Veii. Veii was very close to Rome, only about 16km north of Rome. It was even on the same river system, being on a small tributary of the Tiber. It was the richest of the Etruscan cities and they may have been concerned by the growth of the power of Rome. The Romans were able to hold the Veientes and Aequi at bay however and the wars were probably just border raids for the time being.

Painting of a Vestal Virgin by Raoux AD1729

That year the soothsayers are said to have seen unusual events in the entrails of the animals they were examining. This was taken to mean that something was amiss in the religious ceremonies of the city. One of the Vestal Virgins, who were meant to tend the sacred fire of Vesta, goddess of the hearth, was deemed to have violated her vows of chastity. The woman, who was named Oppia, was buried alive as punishment for her crime.

In the year 482 Quintus Fabius Vibulanus (for his second time as consul) and Gaius Julius Iulus were elected consuls of Rome. The election of that year was a tense affair as Appius Claudius Sabinus, a son of Appius Claudius and like his father, an opponent of the plebs, was attempting to run for consul. The tribunes of the people vetoed any election that had even a possibility of including their arch-rival. Eventually alternative candidates were put forward and the election proceeded, but not without some ill-feeling on both sides. There was further fighting with Aequi and with the people of Veii that year as well.

In the year 481 Caeso Fabius Vibulanus (for his second time as consul) and Spurius Furius Medullinus Fusus were elected consuls of Rome. The consul Fabius defeated the Aequi who had been laying siege to the allied Latin town of Ortona. The war with Veii continued, but with no major engagements. One of the tribunes of the plebs put forward a new agrarian law that would have seen the redistribution of the land among the people, but it came to nothing.

In the year 480 Marcus Fabius Vibulanus (for his second time as consul) and Gnaeus Manlius Cinncinatus were elected consuls of Rome. Another tribune of the people put forward a new agrarian law, but the aristocratic party realised that the tribunes were only a threat if they were united. If even one of the two (or possibly five) tribunes was brought onto the side of the aristocrats, they could veto their colleagues' legislation without the nobility even apparently resisting it. It was a clever stratagem and it worked, to the extreme dissatisfaction of the people, who found that the office of the tribunate was now controlled by the aristocrats that it had been intended to curb.

The army of Veii now pushed into Roman territory, confident that the internal disagreements of the Romans would make them an easy prey. The Romans put an army in the field, but the consuls refused to let them fight, making the soldiers stay inside their fortified camp. The Etruscans became more and more confident and the taunts of their cavalry became infuriating to the Romans. Eventually the soldiery came to the consuls and requested to be allowed to fight. The consuls refused, until the soldiers became so angry that a mutiny was at risk. Eventually the consuls asked the soldiers to swear a sacred oath that they would fight on until victory.

Etruscan helmet from this time period

The soldiers swore and the enthusiastic and furious Roman army attacked the Etruscans. The Veientes fought back with vigour and slew Quintus Fabius, a consul of some years previous and a brother of one of the current consuls. The Etruscans were beaten back, until they were encircled and fighting desperately. The consul Manlius fell in the fighting and it looked as if that wing of the Roman army would break until the body of Manlius was removed and a gap opened for the Veientes to make their escape. Once out of battle formation and fleeing for their lives, the Veientes were cut down by the other wing of the Roman army.

The one surviving consul, Marcus Fabius Vibulanus, marched home with his victorious army, having thoroughly defeated Veii for the time being. As he had lost a brother as well a fellow consul, he declined the offer of a triumph and merely presided over the funeral of those he had lost. As relations between the patricians and plebeians had sunk to a new low, he also quartered the wounded troops in the houses of the patricians for them to take care of. This won him great admiration from both classes and temporarily brought the two groups of the city closer together.

A glorious victory was won, though saddened by the death of two illustrious men. The senate decreed a triumph, but the consul replied that if the army could celebrate a triumph without its commander, he would gladly allow them to do so in return for their splendid service in the war. But as his family were in mourning for his brother, Quintus Fabius, and the State had suffered partial bereavement through the loss of one of its consuls, he could not accept laurels for himself that were blighted by public and private grief. The triumph he declined was more brilliant than any actually celebrated, so much does glory laid by for the moment return sometimes with added splendour. Afterwards he conducted the obsequies of his colleague and his brother, and pronounced the funeral oration over each. The greatest share of the praise which he conceded to them rested upon himself.
Titus Livius, Ab Urbe Condita, 2.47, written around 18BC

Thus the period draws to a close. These were the early years of the Republic, where the foundations of future greatness were laid, by the continual courage of the Romans who defended their lands, but also by the wisdom of some of their leaders, who allowed the defeated foes to be integrated into Rome itself. The strife between patricians and plebeians, particularly over the issue of agrarian land, would continue for centuries and would ultimately doom the Republic. The seeds of downfall, as well as greatness, were sown in these years.

Etruscan jewellery

Primary Sources
Titus Livius, Ab Urbe Condita, written around 18BC

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