499-480BC in Rome

Etruscan helmet from this period. Roman artefacts are
scarce at this time, so many illustrations will be of
Etruscan artefacts from the cities to the north of Rome

This blog post will look at the years 499-480BC in Roman history, touching briefly on other parts of Italian history where possible. The time of the monarchy in Roman history is filled with legends and romances of later times. I have told some of the stories that have come down to us in previous blogs, but I've made it clear that many of these are myths and legends. As these myths and legends did not fill much space, I had previously included these among details of Greek history. But from the early Republic onwards, I feel that Roman history becomes detailed enough, and credible enough, to warrant separate treatment.

The primary source for the period is Livy, in his monumental work Ab Urbe Condita, which means “From the Foundation of the City”. He wrote this in the time of Augustus, so it is much later than the events described. Other sources for this time include tiny fragments from Diodorus Siculus, who wrote about this time period and Rome, but about a generation or two earlier than Livy. His history is only really preserved from around 481BC onwards, so is of little direct use for this time. Dionysius of Halicarnassus and some other historians contain some information about the period also.

The reader should take the dates and the events with a pinch of salt. Dating was an inexact science and there are disagreements on interregnums and other events. Every date in this blog may be incorrect. There is a probable nine-year discrepancy. This is due to Livy calculating an interregnum as 10 years and others calculating it as 1 year. Most dates for the Roman Republic follow Livy's dates, which makes the dates somewhat earlier than what they may have actually been. One should also remember that the Roman years fluctuated compared to our own, so an event that I have mentioned as happening in one year may have happened at least partly in the following year.

Manuscript of Livy's work

Also, many of Livy's sources were the personal histories of the wealthy families of Rome. These were immensely proud and their recollections of their ancestors may be highly fanciful. Some of these records, as we have seen with some of the stories of Tarquin, may in fact have been transposed from Greek history. I will call out these when I can.

In the year 499BC Titus Aebutius Elva and Gaius Vetusius Geminus Cicurinus were consuls for the year. The Romans had two consuls every year, who gave their names to the year, led armies, and to all intents and purposes acted as kings. They were however elected, and could only hold power for one year. As there were two consuls, one could act as a check upon the other.

In this year Livy says that the small settlement of Fidenae, lying a few miles from Rome, between Rome and the wealthy Etruscan city of Veii, was besieged and taken by the Romans. There was war between Rome and the neighbouring Latin League. The Latin League included the cities of Ardea Aricia, Cora, Lanuvium, Lavinium, Pometia, Tibur and Tusculum. These were each smaller cities than Rome, but their combined forces were able to meet the Roman citizens in the field. Livy places the major Battle of Lake Regillus in this year, but it probably happened a few years later.

The Capitoline Wolf as seen in the Capitoline Museum

Around this time, it was traditionally thought that the Capitoline Wolf, a famous sculpture found in Rome and now held to be a symbol of the Roman Republic, was made. Echoing the legend of Romulus and Remus, this sculpture showed a she-wolf. Later sculptors added two small children beneath the wolf in a rather different art style. Modern analysis has shown that the wolf is probably in fact much later, possibly from the time of Charlemagne. I was unaware of this when I saw the wolf and was rather sad to learn it. As the name suggests, it currently resides in the Capitoline Museum in Rome and is well worth visiting if you are ever in the area.

In the year 498 Quintus Cloelius Siculus and Titus Lartius were consuls for the year. Titus Lartius had been consul once before and had also been dictator three years previously. The office of Dictator was one where the Roman people would temporarily suspend the constitution and allow an absolute ruler to step in to solve a crisis. Because the city of Rome was so small, and its enemies so near at hand, the crises were usually resolved in weeks rather than years, so the dictators would normally hand power back to the consuls as quickly as possible. Titus Lartius had been the first Roman dictator.

In the year 497 Aulus Sempronius Atratinus and Marcus Minucius Augurinus were consuls. This pair would later serve as consuls six years later, which might lead to problems with dating. During this year the Temple of Saturn was built in the Roman Forum. Some columns of a much later version of the temple still stand close to the Capitoline Hill, near the much later Arch of Septimius Severus. The temple was rebuilt in 283BC and 42BC. This may have been connected with the institution of the Festival of the Saturnalia. This was a winter festival that involved role reversal, gambling, gift giving and much celebration. However, the festival, like all festivals, changed and evolved over time, so it's hard to know exactly how the ancient Romans celebrated it at any given time.

Renaissance painting of the Battle of Lake Regillus

In the year 496 Aulus Postumius Albus Regillensis and Titus Verginius Tricostus Caeliomontanus were consuls of Rome. It was possibly during this year that the Battle of Lake Regillus was fought, although it may have been three years earlier or three years later. This was a battle fought against an alliance of nearby cities, known as the Latin League by today's scholars. During the time of the Roman monarchy, Rome had possibly been treated as the head of the Latin League, but during the confusing days of the early Republic and the wars with Lars Porsena, the Latin League had more or less become independent.

The exiled king of Rome, Tarquin the Proud, was living in Tusculum, one of the Latin cities, under the protection of Octavius Mamilius, who was a prominent noble and dictator of that city. The Latins united under the leadership of Mamilius to make one last effort to restore the Tarquins to Rome.

The Romans elected Aulus Postumius Albus as dictator. He appointed Titus Aebutius, who had been consul three years previously, as Master of Horse (cavalry commander) and the Romans marched out to meet their enemy. The two sides met near Lake Regillus and a hard-fought battle ensued. There are many tales of glorious hand-to-hand conflicts between the leaders and generals on the two sides, but most of these stories probably came to Livy through the personal histories of the nobility of Rome, most of whom had ancestors who had fought on both sides of the struggle. So, the exact tales of who did what should not be taken too literally. Suffice it to say that Romans won the struggle after their cavalry made a charge, abandoned their horses and fought on foot. The leader of the Latins, Octavius Mamilius, was slain in the heat of battle and the Roman victory was assured. Tarquin the Proud would never again be king in Rome.

Modern drawing of the Dioscuri at the Battle of Lake Regillus

The Latin war which had been threatening for some years now at last broke out. A. Postumius, the Dictator, and T. Aebutius, Master of the Horse, advanced with a large force of infantry and cavalry to the Lake Regillus in the district of Tusculum and came upon the main army of the enemy. On hearing that the Tarquins were in the army of the Latins, the passions of the Romans were so roused that they determined to engage at once. The battle that followed was more obstinately and desperately fought than any previous ones had been. For the commanders not only took their part in directing the action, they fought personally against each other, and hardly one of the leaders in either army, with the exception of the Roman Dictator, left the field unwounded. Tarquinius Superbus, though now enfeebled by age, spurred his horse against Postumius, who in the front of the line was addressing and forming his men. He was struck in the side and carried off by a body of his followers into a place of safety.
Titus Livius, Ab Urbe Condita, 2.19, written around 18BC

Like the near contemporary Battle of Marathon in Greece, numerous legends sprang up around the battle. The most prominent of these was about the Dioscuri, the hero-twins of Greek and Roman mythology, known as Castor and Pollux. Some said that they had seen the twins on horseback riding against the Latins. A temple in the Forum was made shortly after. A much later temple dedicated to this legendary pair still has a few columns remaining today in the Forum.

In the year 495 Appius Claudius Sabinus Regillensis and Publius Servilius Priscus Structus were consuls of Rome. Appius Claudius Sabinus Regillensis was the founder of the gens Claudia (the Claudian family) and was in fact a Sabine immigrant. He had been a wealthy Sabine aristocrat and had favoured peace with Rome, but when the Sabines decided to instead go to war, he emigrated to nearby Rome and there became one of the most prominent aristocrats. His descendants would be some of the most important people in Roman history. In this year, the Roman constitution was amended to add the Claudian tribe, which was now an additional voting bloc in Rome.

Map showing the tribes and cities of central Italy c.500BC

There was a brief war with the neighbouring Volsci people, who had contemplated helping the Latins in the war of the previous year. A new settlement was made at the small colony of Signia. Even better news arrived from the nearby city of Cumae. Tarquin the Proud was dead and there was now no real chance of the restoration of the monarchy. This boded well for the Republic, but it also meant that the people and the nobles, who up until now had mostly cooperated, were now less worried about external threats and more concerned with social struggles.

Having had their lands raided, the Volscians sent emissaries to the Latins to stir them up against Rome. However, having suffered a grievous and painful defeat at Lake Regillus, the Latins were in no mood for another struggle and handed over the emissaries to the Romans. The Romans were so pleased with this that they handed over the prisoners of war that had been taken at Lake Regillus. With these mutual gestures of goodwill, the Latins and the Romans began to think of reconciling their differences.

But after their defeat at Lake Regillus the Latins were so incensed against everyone who advocated a resumption of hostilities that they did not even spare the Volscian envoys, who were arrested and conducted to Rome. There they were handed over to the consuls and evidence was produced showing that the Volscians and Hernicians were preparing for war with Rome. When the matter was brought before the senate, they were so gratified by the action of the Latins that they sent back six thousand prisoners who had been sold into slavery, and also referred to the new magistrates the question of a treaty which they had hitherto persistently refused to consider. The Latins congratulated themselves upon the course they had adopted, and the advocates of peace were in high honour. They sent a golden crown as a gift to the Capitoline Jupiter.
Titus Livius, Ab Urbe Condita, 2.22, written around 18BC

Etruscan war chariot from a slightly
earlier period

The Volscians were in no way deterred by the seizure of their envoys and carried on with their preparations for war. The Roman preparations seem to have been delayed by the breaking out of civil strife. The common people of Rome had gone into great debt during their part of the fighting for the city of Rome. The nobles had also fought, but they had slaves and servants to manage their farms in their absence, so they did not suffer from the constant campaigns. Now some of the poorer Roman citizens were being sold into slavery to cover their debts to the nobles. This led to the first outbreak of what came to be known as the Struggle of the Orders, the underlying causes of which would lead to civil strife that would rage for the next four centuries.

Of the two consuls, the newcomer Appius was said to have called for the people to be suppressed, while the consul Servilius felt sorry for the people and wanted to help them. Servilius made a number of promises to the people, that they should never be enslaved for debts, and proceeded to muster an army and beat back the invading Volscians, as well as a small raiding force of the Sabines. The Aurunci peoples threatened war as well, but these were defeated in another engagement. The Romans returned to their city in triumph, where Appius ordered three hundred Volscian hostages beheaded as punishment for the Volscian invasion.

Having fought hard in the service of the consuls and Rome, the people expected that they would now gain relief from their debt burdens, as Servilius had sworn. But Appius Claudius then refused to honour his colleague's promises and Servilius didn't bother to force his colleague to honour his word. Thus the promises of the consul were held by the commons to be cheaply broken and both consuls became hated by the masses. Appius Claudius became the leader of the aristocrats who were opposed to any concessions to the mass of the people.

Etruscan jewellery

A temple of Mercury had been completed and it was a matter of dispute among the consuls as to who should have the honour of dedicating it. The matter went to the people, who, to show their disgust at both consuls, voted for a lowly centurion to have the honour. It was clear that both the aristocrats and the commoners held each other in high contempt.

In the year 494 Aulus Verginius Tricostus Caeliomontanus and Titus Veturius Geminus Cicurinus were consuls of Rome. This year the tensions between the people and the aristocracy came to a head. There were reports of the plebeians, or common people, gathering on the hills outside of Rome for secret meetings. These meetings were held to be a threat to the state by the nobles and the consuls were advised to use their authority to raise armies and crush any dissent. But the armies were composed of common people, who refused to be enrolled in the armies to attack themselves. This was very different from defending their lands and city against enemies.

The Senate, faced with the risk of civil war, debated the issue. A number of proposals were put forward, some harsh, some mild, but none harsher than the proposals of the consul of the previous year, Appius Claudius. He advocated appointing a dictator and using the power of the dictator to crush the plebs. This proposal won, and Appius was nearly appointed dictator himself, which probably would have caused civil war. Fortunately calmer heads prevailed and Manius Valerius Maximus was appointed Dictator.

The new Dictator made promises to the people to deal with their grievances, but first required that they enlist in the armies for that year. Valerius called up a large number of men, possibly up to forty-five thousand, which would be a vast number for a single city at this time. I am sceptical of the numbers, but it was probably a larger army than Rome had previously seen. There were three main threats; the Volsci, the Sabines and the Aequi. The new armies of Valerius marched against all three and won notable victories, before returning to Rome in triumph.

Italian jewellery from this time period

Valerius then went to the Senate to ask them to pass laws helping the people with their debts. But now that the wars had been won and there was no longer any need for the armies, the nobles in the Senate refused to act. Furious with their refusal, Valerius resigned his dictatorship and passed power back to the consuls for the year, honoured by all the classes both for his compassion and his military achievements.

After the consul Vetusius had returned, Valerius introduced, as the very first business of the senate, the treatment of the men who had been marching to victory, and moved a resolution as to what decision they ought to come to with regard to the debtors. His motion was refused, on which he said, 'I am not acceptable as an advocate of concord. Depend upon it, you will very soon wish that the Roman plebs had champions like me. As far as I am concerned, I will no longer encourage my fellow-citizens in vain hopes, nor will I be Dictator in vain. Internal dissensions and foreign wars have made this office necessary to the commonwealth; peace has now been secured abroad, at home it is made impossible. I would rather be involved in the revolution as a private citizen than as Dictator.' So saying, he left the House and resigned his dictatorship. The reason was quite clear to the plebs; he had resigned office because he was indignant at the way they were treated. The non-fulfilment of his pledge was not due to him, they considered that he had practically kept his word and on his way home they followed him with approving cheers.
Titus Livius, Ab Urbe Condita, 2.31, written around 18BC

Head of the goddess Juno Sospita from Latium
circa 490BC

To prevent the army disbanding, the consuls tried to launch another campaign against the Aequi. The troops had sworn a sacred oath to serve Rome, which in the absence of the dictator, meant serving the hated consuls. There was talk of murdering the consuls to allow the people to escape from their oath, but this was held to be a sacrilege. They instead came up with a compromise solution. They would stay enrolled in the army of the consuls, but simply refuse to participate in any action whatsoever. The army marched to a nearby hill, a few miles from Rome, called the Sacred Mount (possibly the Aventine Hill, but more likely the Sacred Mount) and there they proceeded to do nothing, in a type of sit-down strike. This became known as the Secession of the Plebs.

It is said that the first idea was to put the consuls to death that the men might be discharged from their oath; then, on learning that no religious obligation could be dissolved by a crime, they decided, at the instigation of a certain Sicinius, to ignore the consuls and withdraw to the Sacred Mount, which lay on the other side of the Anio, three miles from the City. … There, without any commander, in a regularly entrenched camp, taking nothing with them but the necessaries of life, they quietly maintained themselves for some days, neither receiving nor giving any provocation.
Titus Livius, Ab Urbe Condita, 2.32, written around 18BC

This strike action of the army perplexed and terrified the aristocracy, who had few recourses. They finally chose to reconcile with the people and sent negotiators to try and reason with those on the Sacred Mount. A compromise was reached, allowing the plebeians to have some of their own officials. These would be known as Plebeian Tribunes, usually just referred to as Tribunes. A Tribune was originally just the leader of the Roman voting tribes, and did not seem to have much power. There had previously been an office known as the Tribune of the Celeres, which had been dissolved after the fall of Tarquin and mostly replaced with two military roles.

Etruscan jewellery

The Tribunes of the Plebs were two (or five: the sources are unclear) officials who would be elected from the plebeian classes and would be able to veto legislation from the consuls or the Senate. This would serve to protect the interests of the plebeian classes from the encroachments of the nobles. The persons of the tribunes were also made sacred, making it a sacrilege to attack them, which shows just how dangerous holding the position of tribune was thought to be.

To assist these Plebeian Tribunes the office of the Plebeian Aedile, was created. These were two officials, who had to be plebeian, who assisted the tribunes, but most particularly took care of the public buildings. They also protected the official laws and documents from being covertly edited by the consuls. With these concessions the First Secession of the Plebs came to an end and peace was temporarily restored between the two classes.

In the year 493 Postumius Cominius Auruncus and Spurius Cassius Viscellinus were elected as consuls of Rome. This was the second consulship for both men. Their election took place shortly before the ending of the Secession of the Plebs. War with the Volsci continued, but now the nearby Latin cities made a peace treaty with Rome that effectively unified the Latin League under Roman leadership. This greatly strengthened Rome, as it meant that not only would there be no further threat from the Latin cities, but that their armies would march to the defence of Rome, under Roman leadership. The treaty is known as the Foedus Cassianum, named after one of the consuls of that year.

The Romans were successful in their war with the Volsci and defeated them at the towns of Longula, Pollusca and Corioli. The town of Corioli was captured mainly through the courage of a young aristocrat named Gaius Marcius, who is said to have nearly single-handedly forced his way into the town, as the inhabitants were sallying out to aid a Volscian relief force. This desperate act of courage won the battle for the Romans and the young noble was honoured by receiving the name “Coriolanus” in recognition for his courage at Corioli.

Etruscan votive statuette

In the year 492 Titus Geganius Macerinus and Publius Minucius Augurinus were elected as consuls of Rome. There was a famine in the city and the lands of Rome. This was partly because of the disruption to planting during the Secession of the Plebs, but also due to the ongoing wars with the Volsci, who had no reason to sell grain to their enemies, or allow others to do so. Eventually grain shipments were procured from Etruria and Sicily. The Volscians were unable to capitalise on Roman weakness, as a severe plague broke out among the Volscians.

In the year 491 Marcus Minucius Augurinus and Aulus Sempronius Atratinus were elected as consuls of Rome. They had both been consuls together six years previously. They were responsible for distributing the grain that had been procured from Sicily and Etruria. But the war-hero Coriolanus bitterly opposed this measure, saying that the commoners had brought this on themselves by their behaviour in the Secession of the Plebs. If they wanted grain, they should relinquish the power of the tribunes. This was clearly a deeply unpopular opinion with the plebs, who banded together and eventually forced Coriolanus to go into exile. In our democratic times it is very hard to have any sympathy with someone who would prefer to let people starve than share power with others, but these were different times and apparently many aristocrats sympathised with Coriolanus.

Many were of opinion that the moment had come for putting pressure on the plebeians, and recovering the rights which had been wrested from the senate through the secession and the violence which accompanied it. Foremost among these was Marcius Coriolanus, a determined foe to the tribunician power. 'If,' he argued, 'they want their corn at the old price, let them restore to the senate its old powers. Why, then, do I, after being sent under the yoke, ransomed as it were from brigands, see plebeian magistrates, why do I see a Sicinius (one of the tribunes) in power? Am I to endure these indignities a moment longer than I can help? Am I, who could not put up with a Tarquin as king, to put up with a Sicinius? Let him secede now! Let him call out his plebeians, the way lies open to the Sacred Hill and to other hills. Let them carry off the corn from our fields as they did two years ago; let them enjoy the scarcity which in their madness they have produced! I will venture to say that after they have been tamed by these sufferings, they will rather work as labourers themselves in the fields than prevent their being cultivated by an armed secession.' 
Titus Livius, Ab Urbe Condita, 2.34, written around 18BC

Etruscan jewellery

In the year 490 Quintus Sulpicius Camerinus Cornutus and Spurius Lartius were elected as consuls of Rome. Spurius Lartius was one of those who is said to have stood with Horatio at the bridge in the war against Lars Porsena in the previous century. This was also his second consulship. Not much can be said of this year.

In the year 489 Gaius Julius Iulus and Publius Pinarius Mamercinus were elected consuls of Rome. Around this time, the Ludus Magna, or Great Games, were held in Rome and representatives of other towns and cities were invited to the games. During these games the Roman consuls are said to have received a warning from one of the leaders of the Volscians that the Volscian representatives were planning to attack and disrupt the games. Considering the tensions between the two nations, this was not implausible. The Volscians were suddenly and inexplicably expelled from Rome, to their great shock and disgust. They returned to their lands where Attius Tullius Aufidius, the Volscian noble who had stirred up the trouble, and the exiled Coriolanus of Rome, prepared to lead the Volscians to war against Rome.

Rome was divided and the plebeians, who had received tribunes, but no substantial debt relief or land reform, were still angry at the nobles. The Volscians had been beaten before and would be beaten again, but the Romans did not seem able to agree on raising an army. The Volscian forces began to ravage outlying territories of Rome.

In 488 Spurius Nautius Rutilus and Sextus Furius Medullinus were elected consuls of Rome. Rome was now in imminent danger from the Volscians, led by the Roman exile Coriolanus. Without agreement between patricians and plebeians an army could not be raised. The Volscians marched with impunity to the outer edges of the city and encamped there. Embassies were sent from Rome to plead for Coriolanus to relent, but he was inflexible in his resolve to punish his homeland until finally his wife and mother came out of the city. They begged Coriolanus to have pity on them and not to destroy his homeland. Coriolanus is said to have finally relented and retreated from the edges of Rome. The Volscians quarrelled with the allies, the Aequi, and the two sides fought a bloody battle that crippled both nations for the remainder of the campaign. In recognition of the great services of Coriolanus' wife and mother, a temple to Fortuna Muliebris (the Fortune of Women) was dedicated shortly thereafter.

A painting by Poussin showing Coriolanus being beseeched
by women to spare his homeland

When his mother ceased speaking, Coriolanus' wife and children embraced him, and all the women wept and bewailed their own and their country's fate. At last his resolution gave way. He embraced his family and dismissed them, and moved his camp away from the City. After withdrawing his legions from the Roman territory, he is said to have fallen a victim to the resentment which his action aroused, but as to the time and circumstances of his death the traditions vary.
Titus Livius, Ab Urbe Condita, 2.40, written around 18BC

Coriolanus was looked on as an almost tragic figure in later times. Shakespeare would write an eponymous play about him. But I have never been able to have any sympathy with Coriolanus. He was a courageous brat who had nothing but contempt for anyone who was not a noble. Until the very end he cared nothing for the rights of anyone but himself, preparing to destroy his country rather than allow his political opponents to have any concessions. He finally relented, but only at the very last minute. He lived in a different culture in a different time, but I find it a hard irony of history that we have a Shakespearean tragedy about the haughty Coriolanus and none about Aristides the Just, who was also exiled from Athens at a similar time period and for far less reason. This paragraph is not history, but merely a personal rant of my own.

In 487 Titus Sicinius Sabinus and Gaius Aquillius Tuscus were elected consuls of Rome. There were wars with the neighbouring Volscians and Hernici. The Volscian campaign was indecisive but the Hernici were defeated.

Etruscan jewellery

In 486 Spurius Cassius Viscellinus and Proculus Verginius Tricostus were elected consuls of Rome. Cassius had previously drafted the treaty that brought peace between the Latins and Rome. He now drafted another treaty to bring the defeated Hernici into the alliance. The terms were quite generous to the defeated people and while this was in fact a wise move, it was resented by some of the nobles and plebs who had wanted to extract more plunder and tribute from the conquered; preferring to have the chance to loot today rather than have allies tomorrow.

Cassius then proposed a redistribution of land. Much of the conquered land was too far from Rome to be tilled easily by the people of the city, but could be tilled by the servants of the nobles. Thus the nobles had made a lot of profit by taking a larger share of conquered land than they were entitled to. This led to extra profits, which enabled them to buy more land and so on and so forth. Cassius proposed that the extra land be taken off the nobles and given to the people. The nobles hated this proposal, as they stood to lose most of their wealth, and Cassius was opposed by nearly all of the aristocrats.

The Tarpeian Rock at the edge of the Capitoline Hill in
Rome

Even the plebs who stood to gain from the proposal turned against Cassius. The rumour spread that Cassius was seeking to become king. Cassius tried to propose a more obviously popular measure for the plebs to try and bring himself back into favour, but this backfired even further.

Of this Cassius intended to give half to the Latins and half to the Roman plebs. He contemplated adding to this a quantity of land which, he alleged, though State land, was occupied by private individuals. This alarmed many of the patricians, the actual occupiers, as endangering the security of their property. On public grounds, too, they felt anxious, as they considered that by this largess the consul was building up a power dangerous to liberty. Then for the first time an Agrarian Law was proposed, and never, from that day to the times within our own memory, has one been mooted without the most tremendous commotions. The other consul resisted the proposed grant. In this he was supported by the senate, whilst the plebs was far from unanimous in its favour. They were beginning to look askance at a boon so cheap as to be shared between citizens and allies, and they often heard the consul Verginius in his public speeches predicting that his colleague's gift was fraught with mischief, the land in question would bring slavery on those who took it, the way was being prepared for a throne. Why were the allies, he asked, and the Latin league included? 
Titus Livius, Ab Urbe Condita, 2.41, written around 18BC

A closer view of the Tarpeian Rock

In 485 Servius Cornelius Maluginensis and Quintus Fabius Vibulanus were elected consuls of Rome. The unfortunate Cassius was placed on trial, accused of seeking to overthrow the Republic and make himself king. He was found guilty and executed, perhaps by being hurled from the Tarpeian Rock. I have always found him a sympathetic figure. He dealt fairly and honestly with the defeated Latins and Hernici, brought them into alliance with Rome and thus strengthened his homeland. His proposed redistribution of the agrarian land was probably needed and it was a measure that might have brought peace between the plebeians and patricians.

I find it odd that Cassius was punished so severely in comparison to Coriolanus, who was merely exiled. But perhaps he was indeed trying to become king? Later records seem to suggest that some of his supporters were burned alive in the area near the Circus Maximus, which seems an even grimmer fate than the Tarpeian Rock.

This year saw the further defeat of the Volsci and the Aequi. The people were made unhappy because the consuls put the spoils of war towards the public treasury rather than distributing it among the troops. A temple of Castor and Pollux, possibly begun shortly after the Battle of Lake Regillus, seems to have been completed and dedicated around this time.

In the year 484 Caeso Fabius Vibulanus (who had prosecuted Cassius in the previous year) and Lucius Aemilius Mamercus were elected consuls of Rome. This year saw further wars against the Volsci and the Aequi, both of which saw Roman victories. The consuls were engaged in many disputes with the plebeian tribunes during this time, but no new powers were given to the tribunes.

In the year 483 Marcus Fabius Vibulanus and Lucius Valerius Potitus were elected consuls of Rome. The struggle for power between the tribunes of the plebs and the consuls continued. There was war with the Aequi and also with the city of Veii. Veii was very close to Rome, only about 16km north of Rome. It was even on the same river system, being on a small tributary of the Tiber. It was the richest of the Etruscan cities and they may have been concerned by the growth of the power of Rome. The Romans were able to hold the Veientes and Aequi at bay however and the wars were probably just border raids for the time being.

Painting of a Vestal Virgin by Raoux AD1729

That year the soothsayers are said to have seen unusual events in the entrails of the animals they were examining. This was taken to mean that something was amiss in the religious ceremonies of the city. One of the Vestal Virgins, who were meant to tend the sacred fire of Vesta, goddess of the hearth, was deemed to have violated her vows of chastity. The woman, who was named Oppia, was buried alive as punishment for her crime.

In the year 482 Quintus Fabius Vibulanus (for his second time as consul) and Gaius Julius Iulus were elected consuls of Rome. The election of that year was a tense affair as Appius Claudius Sabinus, a son of Appius Claudius and like his father, an opponent of the plebs, was attempting to run for consul. The tribunes of the people vetoed any election that had even a possibility of including their arch-rival. Eventually alternative candidates were put forward and the election proceeded, but not without some ill-feeling on both sides. There was further fighting with Aequi and with the people of Veii that year as well.

In the year 481 Caeso Fabius Vibulanus (for his second time as consul) and Spurius Furius Medullinus Fusus were elected consuls of Rome. The consul Fabius defeated the Aequi who had been laying siege to the allied Latin town of Ortona. The war with Veii continued, but with no major engagements. One of the tribunes of the plebs put forward a new agrarian law that would have seen the redistribution of the land among the people, but it came to nothing.

In the year 480 Marcus Fabius Vibulanus (for his second time as consul) and Gnaeus Manlius Cinncinatus were elected consuls of Rome. Another tribune of the people put forward a new agrarian law, but the aristocratic party realised that the tribunes were only a threat if they were united. If even one of the two (or possibly five) tribunes was brought onto the side of the aristocrats, they could veto their colleagues' legislation without the nobility even apparently resisting it. It was a clever stratagem and it worked, to the extreme dissatisfaction of the people, who found that the office of the tribunate was now controlled by the aristocrats that it had been intended to curb.

The army of Veii now pushed into Roman territory, confident that the internal disagreements of the Romans would make them an easy prey. The Romans put an army in the field, but the consuls refused to let them fight, making the soldiers stay inside their fortified camp. The Etruscans became more and more confident and the taunts of their cavalry became infuriating to the Romans. Eventually the soldiery came to the consuls and requested to be allowed to fight. The consuls refused, until the soldiers became so angry that a mutiny was at risk. Eventually the consuls asked the soldiers to swear a sacred oath that they would fight on until victory.

Etruscan helmet from this time period

The soldiers swore and the enthusiastic and furious Roman army attacked the Etruscans. The Veientes fought back with vigour and slew Quintus Fabius, a consul of some years previous and a brother of one of the current consuls. The Etruscans were beaten back, until they were encircled and fighting desperately. The consul Manlius fell in the fighting and it looked as if that wing of the Roman army would break until the body of Manlius was removed and a gap opened for the Veientes to make their escape. Once out of battle formation and fleeing for their lives, the Veientes were cut down by the other wing of the Roman army.

The one surviving consul, Marcus Fabius Vibulanus, marched home with his victorious army, having thoroughly defeated Veii for the time being. As he had lost a brother as well a fellow consul, he declined the offer of a triumph and merely presided over the funeral of those he had lost. As relations between the patricians and plebeians had sunk to a new low, he also quartered the wounded troops in the houses of the patricians for them to take care of. This won him great admiration from both classes and temporarily brought the two groups of the city closer together.

A glorious victory was won, though saddened by the death of two illustrious men. The senate decreed a triumph, but the consul replied that if the army could celebrate a triumph without its commander, he would gladly allow them to do so in return for their splendid service in the war. But as his family were in mourning for his brother, Quintus Fabius, and the State had suffered partial bereavement through the loss of one of its consuls, he could not accept laurels for himself that were blighted by public and private grief. The triumph he declined was more brilliant than any actually celebrated, so much does glory laid by for the moment return sometimes with added splendour. Afterwards he conducted the obsequies of his colleague and his brother, and pronounced the funeral oration over each. The greatest share of the praise which he conceded to them rested upon himself.
Titus Livius, Ab Urbe Condita, 2.47, written around 18BC

Thus the period draws to a close. These were the early years of the Republic, where the foundations of future greatness were laid, by the continual courage of the Romans who defended their lands, but also by the wisdom of some of their leaders, who allowed the defeated foes to be integrated into Rome itself. The strife between patricians and plebeians, particularly over the issue of agrarian land, would continue for centuries and would ultimately doom the Republic. The seeds of downfall, as well as greatness, were sown in these years.

Etruscan jewellery

Primary Sources
Titus Livius, Ab Urbe Condita, written around 18BC

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