Some African History from 750-500BC

Statue of Taharqa offering wine to a god

This is a quick overview of African history from the year 750BC to the year 500BC. Due to the nature of the sources it will be rather focused on Egypt. This is unfortunate, but somewhat inevitable, as Egypt is the one of the best documented places in the world at this time. However, during this time other sources begin to appear in the historical record, which brings joy to all those who love history.

Outside of Egypt there was a complex and powerful civilisation in the kingdom of Kush, which lay along the Nile to the south of Egypt. This land is also sometimes referred to as Nubia. The land of Punt, which had been the destination of Egyptian trading expeditions during the New Kingdom disappears from the records and while it may still have existed, we have no knowledge of it.

Nok culture terracotta artefact

The lower edge of the Sahara had seen the development of agriculture, although there is no record of extensive bronze metalworking from this period. This is to be expected as tin was very scarce in the ancient world and there were no easy trade routes past the Sahara at this time. While bronze-working was not evident in that region, iron-working does seem to have become known to the civilisations in the Sahel and further south around this time.

Further south of the equator humans still lived as hunter-gatherers, as their distant ancestors had done for millennia. This was more to do with the sophistication of their hunting techniques than anything else. Unlike other parts of the world they had not had the need to develop agriculture and their culture was perfectly adapted to its surroundings. However, if farming groups were to arrive in the area from outside, this would change the balance of the environment and tip the scales in favour of the agricultural groups.

The Nok culture was thriving at this time, in what is now the country of Nigeria. Meanwhile the speakers of Bantu languages had already begun the process of expansion that would see their languages spread over most of sub-Saharan Africa. The Bantu speakers had already reached the rainforests of the Congo Basin and the Ugandan highlands around this time, but it is hard to know the exact spread of this language family at this time.

By the year 740BC King Piye of Kush had enforced a loose hegemony over the Egyptian rulers of Upper and Lower Egypt and probably had tributary arrangements as far north as the Nile Delta. However, the rulers of the city of Sais probably felt threatened by this.

Burial ground at El-Kurru in Kush

In the year 732BC Tefnakht of Sais declared himself to be the Pharaoh of Egypt and the founder of the 24th Dynasty of Egypt. This was while both the 22nd and the 23rd Dynasties were still technically ruling Egypt as well. Tefnakht began to form the Libyan princes who ruled the cities of Egypt into an anti-Kushite alliance.

In the year 728BC Piye of Kush responded. He sent his troops to break the siege of Heracleopolis and then pushed northwards in the following year 727BC, receiving the surrender of forts and cities along his route. Those who surrendered were not killed however and it seems that Piye even captured another of the sons of Tefnakht and did not put him to death. The victorious march continued until the king had reached the city of Memphis, which was strengthened by Tefnakht with 8000 troops who marched in secretly during the night, however Tefnakht himself left the city on horseback, leaving the garrison to fend for itself while he organised resistance among the cities of the Delta. Memphis was surrounded by high walls and arms of the river encompassed it on the eastern side. Some of his generals advocated a long siege however Piye decided on the element of speed and surprise, commandeering all boats available, plus his own fleet, and rushing against the river walls. The city was taken by siege and put to the sword. By the second day the looting and killing had stopped and Piye had taken full control of the city.

Stele of Piye

Then he sent forth his fleet and his army to assault the harbor of Memphis; they brought to him every ferry-boat, every cargo-boat, every transport, and the ships, as many as there were, which had moored in the harbor of Memphis, with the bow-rope fastened among its houses.
Piye Stela

The bloody siege of Memphis and the incredible speed it had been taken left the northern princes, chiefs and little kings no choice but to surrender. Osorkon of Tanis, probably the second strongest of the kings of the Delta after Tefnakht, surrendered in Heliopolis and gave tribute. The other kings followed suit shortly in the city of Athribis. While Piye organised his armies, a city in the western delta, called Mesed rose up against the Kushites, but was crushed by the Kushite armies and the forces of Pediese, a Libyan king who had submitted to Piye. After this final defeat Tefnakht finally surrendered but refused to come to meet Piye and bow down before him. Tefnakht had fled, perhaps to Crete or Cyprus, and refused to risk his life or humble his pride. The last remaining chieftains submitted to Piye, where they were humiliated by not being allowed inside the palace due to their ritual uncleanliness. Instead they had to kiss the ground at the feet of Piye outside the palace and were left outside once the surrender was complete.

Then came those kings and princes of the Northland, all the chiefs who wore the feather (meaning Libyans rather than Egyptians), every vizier, all chiefs, and every king's confidant, from the west, from the east, and from the islands in the midst, to see the beauty of his majesty.
Piye Stela

Pyramid of Piye at El-Kurru

Piye had the stela written glorifying his exploits in the style of the great Egyptian warrior kings of old, like Tuthmosis III or Ramesses II. He stressed his reliance on the Egyptian gods and his ritual purity, the innovative tactics he had used, the mercy he showed to those who surrendered and the retribution he gave to those who did not, although his methods of waging war were humane by the standards of the day and almost humanitarian compared to the Assyrian methods. But most of all he stressed that this was not merely a civil war, nor an invasion from the south but that he, a true Egyptian, was finally ridding Egypt of the sway of unclean Libyan foreigners. His account has sometimes been compared to a religious crusade although that is probably overstating matters. Piye's capital however was in Napata, in present day Sudan, so after having set the Delta in order and reconfirmed the now loyal sub-kings, he returned to Napata with all the spoils of victory. The sub-kings would not rise again against the Kushites.

This war also ended the 23rd Dynasty, although a descendant of Tefnakht would rule at Sais for another few years as the second and last king of the short lived 24th Dynasty. Osorkon IV, the last king of the 22nd Dynasty continued to hold his throne in Tanis, but as a vassal of the Kushite Pharaohs. Piye was declared the Pharaoh of Egypt and the first ruler 25th Dynasty of Egypt.

Piye died in 714BC and was buried in a large pyramid in the Kushite royal cemetery of El-Kurru. He was succeeded by his son Shebitku, who may have been followed by Piye's brother Shabaka. Their reigns saw the crushing of the 24th Dynasty at Sais and the ending of the 23rd Dynasty at Tanis. The north-eastern border of Egypt was threatened by the Assyrians who were expanding their empire in the Levant. The Kushite general Taharqa attempted to save the Kingdom of Judah from the Assyrians, but was defeated at Eltekeh.

Temple of the Moon God at D'mt

During this time the kingdom of D'mt was reaching the zenith of its power and glory. Their kingdom was centred on their capital at Yeha, in what is now northern Ethiopia. They built a great temple at Yeha, part of which still stands today. It was probably dedicated to the Moon God, but this is unclear.

Inscriptions in the Sabaean script have been found from this region and most amazingly, they record the names of kings and queens for this obscure kingdom. They use Sabaean titles for their rulers, as well as the Sabaean script, so it is very clear that the kingdom was culturally influenced by the Sabaeans, but it does not seem as if they names of their kings and queens were Sabaean.

The kingdom of D'mt did not merely centre on Yeha, but had a number of other cities, mostly in the region of what is now the country of Eritrea. These included Hawulti, Matara and Qohaito, all of which may yield more information on the history of this land when excavated more fully in the future.

Sabaean inspired writing from the kingdom of D'mt

In Egypt and Kush, Taharqa acceded to the throne in 690BC. He appears to have been a strong and capable Pharaoh, but he faced a very serious threat. The Assyrian Empire was at the height of its power and, under their king Esarhaddon, invaded Egypt in 671BC. The Assyrians captured Memphis after a fierce struggle and while Taharqa escaped, other members of the Kushite royal family, including the crown prince Ushanahuru, were captured by the ruthless Assyrians.

Esarhaddon was faced with rebellion in his own kingdom and withdrew shortly after the capture of Memphis. But even so, this was the most terrible invasion that Egypt had seen in many centuries. The Libyans and the Kushites had both seen themselves as in certain sense Egyptian. The Assyrians were simply foreign conquerors. We have a prayer from Taharqa at this time.

Oh Amun, … my wives, let my children live. Keep death away from them, for me. 
Prayer of Taharqa, written around 670

The Egyptians rebelled against the Assyrians in 670BC and Taharqa came back to the attack. Esarhaddon died as he was returning to Egypt to crush the Kushite counterattack. His son Ashurbanipal took over the conquest. In 667BC Ashurbanipal returned to Egypt and defeated Taharqa once more. One of the Egyptian princes of Sais had been placed as an Assyrian governor of Lower Egypt and even though he had rebelled against the Assyrians, Necho I was returned to Egypt as a client ruler of the Delta in the name of the Assyrians.

Pyramid of Taharqa at Nuri in Kush

Taharqa died around 664BC and was buried in a grand pyramid at a new royal cemetery at Nuri. It was succeeded by Tanutamon, also known as Tantamani. Tantamani attacked the Assyrians, killing their vassal king Necho I, and the Assyrians counterattacked, pushing southwards to Thebes in Upper Egypt. Here they attacked until they had captured it and sacked it, causing great destruction in one of the greatest cities on earth. This destruction of Thebes effectively pushed the Kushite rulers back into Kush. The end of Kushite rule is generally held as the end of the Third Intermediate Period of Egyptian history and the beginning of what is known as the Late Period.

In 656 Psammetichus I, son of Necho I, recaptured Thebes, ending Kushite rule in Egypt. This was at least partly because the Divine Adoratrice of Amun (High Priestess) was a sacred figure and had been left alone by the Assyrians and Egyptians. This person had joint control over the city of Thebes and control of the vast estates of the temple of Amun. The current Adoratrice was Shepenupet II, a Kushite and a long-lived daughter of Piye, the first Kushite Pharaoh of Egypt. Shepenupet was old and had adopted a daughter, Amenirdis, the daughter of Taharqa, to succeed her.

Relief of Nitocris and Psamtik I

The estates of Amun were too powerful to be left in the hands of the relatives of a rival Pharaoh, so Psammetichus (or Psamtik I depending on what naming convention is used), decided to force Shepenupet to adopt his daughter, Nitocris, instead, so that on Shepenupet's death, Nitocris would become the next Adoratrice. This forced adoption took place in 656 and is commemorated by a stela of Psammetichus. This time period sees Psammetichus gradually increasing his power to the point where he would be able to defy the Assyrians and expel them from his land. Assyrian forces may have begun to withdraw from Egypt from around 654 onwards. Psammetichus I now ruled as a Pharaoh of the 26th Dynasty of Egypt.

In the year 9, second month of the first season, day 14, they arrived at the city of the gods, Thebes. As she advanced, she found all Thebes, men and women alike, standing, rejoicing at her approach, surrounding her with great offerings, a multitude in number. Then they said: "The daughter of the King of Upper Egypt, Nitocris, comes to the house of Amun; that he may receive her and be satisfied with her. The daughter of the King of Lower Egypt, Shepnupet, comes to Karnak, that the gods therein may honour her."
Adoption Stela of Nitocris

Relief showing Shepenupet

Psammetichus was also famed in literature for conducting possibly the first scientific experiment ever, or at least the first psychological experiment. The Egyptians had always claimed that they were the oldest civilisation in the world. Psammetichus sought to prove this by having some children raised without listening to the speech of others and trying to figure out which language the children would spontaneously speak, assuming that they would speak the original language of mankind and thus, find the oldest civilisation. This experiment supposedly showed that the Phrygians were the oldest civilisation, which is interesting, as that can hardly have been the expected outcome. This was determined by the fact that the children kept saying the word "bekos" when pointing at bread, which roughly matched the Phrygian word for bread, but not the Egyptian. However, this story is nowhere recorded among the Egyptians and is only taken from the much later Greek texts of Herodotus.

Stela of Tefnakht

While we cannot prove if the language experiment was real or not, we can be certain that a new form of writing was pioneered in Egypt around this time, called the Demotic script (capitalised to avoid confusion with Greek "demotic" script). This was a short-hand script that could be used to transcribe hieroglyphs quickly and in some ways replaced an earlier short-hand known as hieratic. It was not an alphabet but it could be used to speed up writing and was widely adopted. It was part of the much later Rosetta Stone that was later used to decipher the Egyptian hieroglyphs.

According to legend the Greek colony of Cyrene was founded in Libya with Greek colonists and native Libyans in the year 631BC. It had good relations with the native peoples and it was unusual for Greek colonies, in that the main city was founded slightly inland, rather than directly on the sea, as was more usual. The colony would become famed for its export of silphium, a rare plant that only grew near this region and was believed to be not only the finest of delicacies, but also a herb with powerful healing properties. Silphium became the main export of Cyrene under the reigns of the Battiad kings, who ruled the colony for some centuries after its foundation.

In the year 609BC Necho II of Egypt led an expedition as far as the Euphrates River to try and save the remnants of the Assyrian Empire, which was on the verge of destruction by the Babylonians and the Medes. On the way there he defeated King Josiah of Judah in battle at Megiddo. After some initial successes, the Egyptian force was dealt a serious defeat in 605BC and was pushed back to the borders of Egypt by the Babylonians. The Egyptians defeated the Babylonians on the frontier in 601BC, but the Babylonians were still an active threat in the region.

Nok culture terracotta artifact

Around the year 600BC the people of the Nok culture had definitely developed iron-smelting techniques. It is unclear if they developed these independently or if they had received external knowledge. I suspect that the knowledge of iron-working was brought from artefacts traded across Africa, but that the techniques of iron-working were developed independently. The sophistication of their smelting furnaces was quite impressive and the quality of their iron was some of the best in the world at the time. An important smelting site was located at the present-day town of Taruga, near the Nigerian capital city of Abuja.

Around 595BC Pharaoh Necho II died and was succeeded by Psamtik II. He was one of the most fascinating individuals of this time period and seems to have had many excellent ideas. Perhaps he was too ahead of his time though, as most of his ideas seem to have failed in their execution.

Necho II is supposed to have attempted to link the Red Sea to the Nile in the earliest version of the Suez Canal to have been attempted. This was a gigantic work and was truly a work of vision but there were problems with it, namely that there is a considerable difference in water levels between the two bodies of water. There are no Egyptian inscriptions for this but we know the story from Herodotus, who says that Necho II stopped construction after receiving an unfavourable oracle.

Depiction of Necho II

Necho II then appears to have commissioned an even more intriguing expedition. He hired Phoenician sailors, the greatest sailors of the ancient world, to set sail from the Red Sea and to attempt to circumnavigate Africa. According to Herodotus, who again, is our sole source for the story, the sailors did not return for a long time but did eventually arrive back in Egypt having sailed around the continent and coming back through the Straits of Gibraltar. This was an unprecedented feat and one that was not to be repeated to our knowledge until the Age of Exploration. The sailors told tales of the sun being in the wrong position, which led the Greeks, and perhaps the Egyptians, to discount the story. This however makes it much more plausible, as it suggests that the Phoenicians did in fact reach the southern hemisphere.

For Libya shows clearly that it is bounded by the sea, except where it borders on Asia. Necos king of Egypt first discovered this and made it known. When he had finished digging the canal which leads from the Nile to the Arabian Gulf, he sent Phoenicians in ships, instructing them to sail on their return voyage past the Pillars of Heracles until they came into the northern sea and so to Egypt. So the Phoenicians set out from the Red Sea and sailed the southern sea; whenever autumn came they would put in and plant the land in whatever part of Libya they had reached, and there await the harvest; then, having gathered the crop, they sailed on, so that after two years had passed, it was in the third that they rounded the pillars of Heracles and came to Egypt. There they said (what some may believe, though I do not) that in sailing around Libya they had the sun on their right hand.
Herodotus, Histories: 4:42

Statue of Anhknesneferibre

When Psamtik II took the throne he instated his daughter Ankhnesneferibre as Divine Adoratrice of Amun in Thebes. This was in the year 595 or 594 depending on what is counted as the first year. This was an important position, in certain ways perhaps the second most important position in Egypt after the Pharaoh himself, so it was important to ensure that this post was held by someone loyal to the dynasty. Nitocris I adopted the princess to ensure that she would become God's Wife on the death of Nitocris. Thus the Saite Dynasty (the 26th Dynasty) further strengthened its hold on the southern part of Egypt.

Year 1, third month of the third season, day 29, under the majesty of Horus: Favourite of the Two Goddesses: Mighty of Arm; Golden Horus: Beautifying the Two Lands; King of Upper and Lower Egypt: Psamtik II, given life. On this day the king's-daughter, Ankhnesneferibre, arrived at Thebes. Her mother, the Divine Consort, Nitocris, who liveth, came forth to behold her beauty, and they went together to the House of Amon. 
Stela of Ankhnesneferibre, written circa 594BC

Around 590BC the Kushite capital appears to have moved south from Napata, which was vulnerable to raids from the reinvigorated Egyptian kingdom, to Meroe, which was further south along the Nile. Napata was still held by the Kushites however and their kings continued to be buried in the royal cemetery of Nuri during this time.

In the year 589BC Apries of Egypt, known as Hophra in the Biblical record, succeeded to the throne. He was unable to prevent the rise of Babylonian power in the region, and it is possible that there was a Babylonian invasion during his reign, but this is unclear. He was overthrown by the usurper Amasis II in 570BC after a failed invasion of Cyrene.

Relief from Jebel Barka in Kush

I am not sure of when this story took place, but I have presumed it to occur at some point around the year 550BC, if it happened at all. The cities of Carthage and Cyrene both existed along the North African coast: Two trading cities, one Phoenician, one Greek. Neither side had great interest in the desert interior and were both more interested in trading with the rest of the Mediterranean. Thus they decided to draw a border between them. It was decided that two runners would set out from each city and run as fast as they could along the coast until they met the runners from the other city. Supposedly the Carthaginian runners made incredible speed and met the runners from Cyrene well over halfway away from Carthage. The runners from Cyrene understandably were annoyed and accused the Carthaginians, two brothers known as the Philaeni Brother, of cheating. Cheating may in fact have taken place. The Greeks wanted to rerun the race while the Carthaginians wanted the result to stand.

AD1872 painting of the Battle of Pelusium by Lenoir

Eventually the Greeks agreed to a compromise. They would accept the result, if the Philaeni Brothers were to be slain. If the Philaeni Brothers wanted to live they would rerun the race. The Philaeni chose to die so that their homeland could enjoy the advantage that they had won for it. Solemn sacrifices were made and until the time of late Antiquity the boundary between the two regions was fixed at the Altar of the Philaeni. Later the Roman Empire would be split into east and west at the point where the Philaeni Brothers died. I'm not sure when this story happened and I'm not at all sure if the story is true. It probably is not. But there are no records of Cyrene and Carthage going to war at least.

In 525BC the Babylonian Empire had fallen and the Persian Empire now dominated the Middle East. Led by their ruler Cambyses II, the son of Cyrus the Great, the Persians invaded Egypt, which was now ruled by the son of Amasis, Psammetichus III. There was a great battle fought at Pelusium, which the Persians won. There are some strange legends about the Battle of Pelusium that lead it to be known as the Battle of the Cats. This comes from a much later Greek book however and should not be taken too seriously. Egypt was now part of the huge Persian Empire. This ended the 26th Dynasty of Egypt. The Persian kings are sometimes referred to as the 27th Dynasty of Egypt.

Wall paintings from the tomb of Tanutamani

Around the year 500BC the Magonid kings began their rule of the city of Carthage. They were from a family that bore the name of Mago, e.g. Hamilcar Mago or Hannibal Mago. Very little is known of the constitution of Carthage around this time and even though it was ruled by kings during this period, there probably was some form of Senate, or Council, to moderate the decisions of the kings.

Around this time the ancestors of the Khoikhoi group probably began to inhabit the region to Twyfelfontein in what is now present-day Namibia. The region is known for its rock art in the caves and cliff faces. These rock carvings and paintings are preserved due to the aridity of the region, which receives very little rainfall. It was probably a sacred site or a gathering place for the hunter-gatherers of the region, but sadly little can be said about it.

During all this time the speakers of the Bantu languages were gradually moving southwards into the rainforests of central Africa. Over the next millennium they would gradually extend their languages across much of the central and southern reaches of the continent.

Wall paintings from the tomb of Tanutamani

And thus the period draws to a close. Egypt had seen the end of the New Kingdom, followed by the Libyan and Kushite rule of the Third Intermediate Period, followed by the Persian conquest after the 26th Dynasty. Even after the Kushite defeats, Kush was still one of the strongest states in the world at the time. The period also saw the growth of the Phoenician city of Carthage on the northern coast of Tunisia, and the foundation of the Greek colony of Carthage on what is now the northern region of Libya. The Iron Age sub-Saharan Africa began in earnest with the adoption and refinement of iron-working by the Nok Culture. In the east of Africa the little-known kingdom of D'mt was flourishing.

Sphinx of Amasis

Primary Sources:
Piye Stela, written circa 720BC
Prayer of Taharqa, written around 670BC
Adoption Stela of Nitocris, written circa 656BC
Herodotus, Histories: 4:42, written circa 440BC
Stela of Ankhnesneferibre, written circa 594BC

Related Blog Posts:
Some African History from 4000-3000BC
Some African History from 3000-2000BC
Some African History from 2000-1500BC
Some African History from 1500-1000BC
Some African History from 1000-750BC
Some African History from 750-500BC