439-420BC in Rome

Etruscan warrior
statuette

This blog post will look at the years 439-420BC in Roman history, touching briefly on other parts of Italian history where possible. The primary source for the period is Livy, in his monumental work Ab Urbe Condita, which means "From the Foundation of the City". He wrote this in the time of Augustus, so it is much later than the events described. Other sources for this time include the histories of Diodorus Siculus, who wrote about this time period and Rome, but about a generation or two earlier than Livy. Dionysius of Halicarnassus and some other historians contain some information about the period also. There are also some lists of the consuls and triumphs of the various years preserved in ancient inscriptions, such as the Fasti Capitolini and the Fasti Triumphales.

The reader should take the dates and the events with a pinch of salt. Dating was an inexact science and there are disagreements on interregnums and other events. Every date in this blog may be incorrect. Most dates for the Roman Republic follow Livy's dates, which makes the dates somewhat earlier than what they may have actually been. One should also remember that the Roman years fluctuated compared to our own, so an event that I have mentioned as happening in one year may have happened at least partly in the following year. I have taken Livy's account as my primary source.

Also, many of Livy's sources were the personal histories of the wealthy families of Rome. These were immensely proud and their recollections of their ancestors may be highly fanciful. Some of these records, as we have seen with some of the stories of Tarquin, may in fact have been transposed from Greek history. I will call out these when I can.

In the year 439 Titus Quinctius Capitolinus Barbatus and Menenius Agrippa Lanatus were elected consuls in Rome. There had been a famine in the previous year and food supplies were still short. A wealthy plebeian by the name of Spurius Maelius had helped to alleviate the famine by buying a great deal of grain from Etruria and distributing it for free or at reduced prices. This made him quite popular among the poorer classes, but had made him an object of suspicion among the patricians.

The consuls certainly believed that Spurius Maelius was up to no good. Rumours of weapons being collected at his house came to the ears of the magistrates, whether there was anything to them or not. Whenever any citizen became overly popular, there was always the suspicion that they were attempting to become king, a title that was hated in Rome beyond all others.

A painting depicting Cincinnatus earlier being called from
his plough to the dictatorship

The consuls nominated Cincinnatus as Dictator, he promptly appointed Gaius Servilius Ahala as the Master of Horse, an important military role. Gaius Servilius Ahala was immediately dispatched to bring Spurius Maelius to the Dictator. When Spurius Maelius saw the Master of Horse coming against him with officers and lictors. Spurius Maelius fled into the crowd and begged protection from them. Gaius Servilius Ahala followed him into the turmoil of the crowd and struck him down with the sword.

He entreated them to come to his help in this terrible crisis, and not suffer him to be butchered before their eyes. Whilst he was making these appeals, Servilius overtook him and slew him. Besprinkled with the dead man's blood, and surrounded by a troop of young patricians, he returned to the Dictator and: reported that Maelius after being summoned to appear before him had driven away his officer and incited the populace to riot, and had now met with the punishment he deserved. "Well done!" said the Dictator, "Gaius Servilius, you have delivered the republic."
Titus Livius, Ab Urbe Condita, 4.14, written around 18BC

Etruscan warrior statuette

Cincinnatus then summoned the people to an assembly and said that Spurius Maelius had been lawfully killed, in that he had refused an order of the Dictator. This was a questionable point, as he had appealed to the people for protection, and no citizen of the Republic should be without appeal, even against the word of the lawful Dictator of Rome. But, eventually the people, though disgruntled, acquiesced. The house and property of the supposed traitor were confiscated and turned over to the city. It was never very clear that Spurius Maelius was in fact aspiring to become king or was conspiring to do anything at all in fact.

Cincinnatus resigned his dictatorship immediately the supposed danger was averted and returned to his farm in the countryside. Despite the protestations of the patricians that this entire episode had been for the security of the state, the plebs were still angered. It is said that they determined to elect tribunes with consular powers at the next elections rather than consuls.

In the year 438 Mamercus Aemilius Macerinus, Lucius Quinctius Cincinnatus (the son of the Dictator of the previous year) and Lucius Julius Iulus were elected as consular tribunes in Rome. During this year Lucius Quinctius Cincinnatus (the Dictator of previous years) died and was mourned by the Romans.

During this year war threatened to break out between Rome and the nearby Etruscan city of Veii. The Roman colony of Fidenae had rebelled against Rome and murdered some Rome envoys. Both Fidenae and Veii were close by to Rome and it was likely that this murder occurred late in the year as no action was taken during the year for the vengeance of the Romans.

In the year 437 Marcus Geganius Macerinus and Lucius Sergius Fidenas were elected as consuls in Rome. Now the war against Veii was kindled. The Veientes and Fidenates were arrayed against Rome. The anti-Roman coalition was led by Lars Tolumnius, the King of Veii, who was said to have ordered the murder of the Roman envoys in the previous year.

An earlier statue from Veii (circa 500BC)
probably depicting Apollo

Veii was a wealthy city and the coalition against Rome was held to be a serious one. The Romans fought a difficult battle south of the Anio and were said to have triumphed, but had suffered heavy losses. In these difficult circumstances, the Romans appointed Mamercus Aemilius Macerinus as Dictator to lead them into battle. Lars Tolumnius withdrew back across the Anio and summoned fresh reinforcements from Falerii.

The two sides met in battle and the war hung in the balance. Finally a Roman cavalry officer named Cornelius Cossus killed Lars Tolumnius, king of Veii and the Etruscans broke and fled. It was a great victory for Rome and Mamercus was granted a triumph before laying down his dictatorship.

In the year 436 Lucius Papirius Crassus and Marcus Cornelius Maluginensis were elected consuls in Rome. There were a number of plundering expeditions launched against Veii and Falerii. There was the possibility of unrest among the plebeians, as a relative of the slain Spurius Maelius tried to prosecute Servilius Ahala for the murder of his relative. But the prosecution was not successful. A pestilence broke out in Rome around this time.

In the year 435 Gaius Julius Iulus and Lucius Verginius Tricostus were elected consuls in Rome. The pestilence grew worse, and the men of Fidenae took advantage of this to attack Rome. They advanced as far as the Colline Gate near the edge of the city. The consuls appointed Aulus Servilius as Dictator and the hastily levied army of the Dictator, plague-ridden or otherwise, beat back the men of Fidenae. The Romans won a victory on the road, and then decided to besiege Fidenae itself. The town was very close to Rome and to leave it untaken was a grave risk. Diversionary attacks were launched against the walls while mines and sapping operations were begun, aiming to reach the citadel from underground. The city of Fidenae was captured by Rome and I cannot imagine that the Romans were merciful to those who were captured.

Etruscan statuette of a warrior on horseback

In the year 434 Gaius Julius Iulus and Lucius Verginius Tricostus were elected consuls in Rome, except that perhaps maybe they weren't. It would be quite unusual for a single consul to be returned, but quite extraordinary for two consuls to be returned for the next year. Livy records that there is some confusion about this year and that different records said different things. I would imagine that there has been confusion in the documentation.

There was a threat to the Romans from the Etruscans. The people of Veii had summoned the Twelve Towns of Etruria and were trying to rally their fellow Etruscans to join a great war against Rome. The Romans appointed Mamercus Aemilius Macerinus as Dictator to meet the threat. However, the existential threat never came. Veii was unable to muster support from the other Etruscans and the threat of a pan-Etruscan coalition came to nothing.

Etruscan statue from Veii

Mamercus Aemilius Macerinus prepared to lay down his dictatorship, but before doing so he decided to aid the people by reducing the power of the newly created office of censor. The censorship at this time lasted for 5 years. Mamercus Aemilius Macerinus reduced the tenure of the office to 18 months. This was known as the Lex Aemilia de Censoribus. The censors were able to assess taxation and to take censuses, determining who was a citizen and what type of citizen they were. They reacted vindictively, and once Mamercus Aemilius Macerinus had resigned his office of Dictator, the censors increased his taxation eight-fold, made him the lowest class of citizen, ineligible for any office ever again.

The censors were extremely angry with Mamercus for having limited the power of a Roman magistrate, they struck him out of his tribe, increased his assessment eightfold, and disfranchised him. It is recorded that he bore this most magnanimously, thinking more of the cause which led to the ignominy being inflicted upon him than of the ignominy itself. The leading men amongst the patricians, though disapproving of the limitation imposed on the censorial jurisdiction, were shocked at this instance of the harsh exercise of its power, for each recognised that he would be subject to the censors more frequently and for a longer time than he would be censor himself. At all events the people, it is said, felt so indignant that no one but Mamercus possessed sufficient authority to protect the censors from violence.
Titus Livius, Ab Urbe Condita, 4.24, written around 18BC

Mamercus, who had celebrated a triumph three years previously, took the vindictiveness with good grace and would not allow his supporters to hurt or punish the censors. Thus, even those who had opposed the limiting of the censorship came to gradually agree with Mamercus.

Etruscan statue from Veii

In the year 433 Marcus Fabius Vibulanus, Lucius Sergius Fidenas and Marcus Folius Flaccinator were elected as consular tribunes in Rome. There was a pestilence again in this year and the Romans had to buy grain abroad, as there was fear that there would be famine in the land as well. The Sibylline Books were opened and it was decided that a temple to Apollo would be dedicated to try and turn aside the wrath of the god, who was said to cause plague.

In the year 432 Lucius Pinarius Mamercus, Spurius Postumius Albus Regillensis and Lucius Furius Medullinus were elected as consular tribunes in Rome. In this year the pestilence began to abate and thus the threat of impending famine also appeared to diminish. There was political strife, with the tribunes of the plebs passing a law that forbade open campaigning. This was intended to stop the patricians from having an advantage in the election of consular tribunes. It is probable that it had little effect. There was a rising of the Aequi and the Volscians this year, but it was too late in the year for military action to be taken immediately.

Elsewhere in Italy, the colony of Heraclea was founded by the Greek cities of Taras and Thurii as a compromise colony. It would include settlers from both cities and was built on a piece of land that had previously been disputed by these cities in a war.

In the year 431 Titus Quinctius Poenus Cincinnatus and Gaius Julius Mento were elected as consuls in Rome. The two consuls quickly found out that they hated each other and disagreed on nearly everything. The Aequi and the Volsci occupied Mount Algidus and it may be that the Romans suffered a defeat here under the command of the consuls. It was decided that a Dictator would be called and Aulus Postumius Tubertus was named as Dictator.

Etruscan warrior
statuette

A great battle was fought on Mount Algidus and the Romans were once more victorious, as they had so often been at this battleground. Some Volscians escaped under the leadership of Vettius Messius, who was acknowledged by the Romans as a worthy foe, but most of the Aequi and Volscian soldiers were captured and sold into slavery. Aulus Postumius Tubertus resigned his dictatorship and returned to Rome. It is reported that Aulus Postumius Tubertus had executed his son for the crime of having left his post, even though his son had left through enthusiasm rather than cowardice. Livy reports the tale, but raises a number of objections to it.

The consul Gaius Julius Mento, who had remained at Rome while his colleague accompanied the Dictator, dedicated the temple to Apollo Medicus in Rome. This temple had been vowed some years earlier as part of a desire to be free of plague. The temple stood near what is now the Theatre of Marcellus and some columns of a later temple can be seen there, as the temple was rebuilt a number of times over the years.

In the year 430 Lucius Papirius Crassus and Lucius Julius Iulus were elected as consuls in Rome. The year was a quiet one. The Aequi applied for a treaty and were granted an eight year truce. The Volscians were locked in an internal civil war on the question of whether they should seek peace with Rome. The consuls put forward a bill to regulate how fines were assessed. This was a popular bill so the consuls put it forward so that the tribunes of the plebs could not get the credit for it.

In the year 429 Hostus Lucretius Tricipitinus and Lucius Sergius Fidenas were elected as consuls in Rome. Livy records nothing of note that happened in this year.

In the year 428 Aulus Cornelius Cossus and Titus Quinctius Pennus were elected as consuls in Rome. Raiding parties from Veii attacked Roman territory and it was suspected that some of the Roman settlers from Fidenae had accompanied them. The Romans conducted some investigations and banished some who were said to be guilty.

Etruscan rock-hewn tomb 5th century BC

There was a drought in the land during this year and the consuls intervened to stop the Romans from worshipping other gods in an effort to bring rain. I find it interesting that there were other gods being worshipped in Rome and wonder which gods they were?

Pretended soothsayers went about introducing new modes of sacrificing, and did a profitable trade amongst the victims of superstition, until at last the sight of strange un-Roman modes of propitiating the wrath of the gods in the streets and chapels brought home to the leaders of the commonwealth the public scandal which was being caused. The aediles were instructed to see to it that none but Roman deities were worshipped, nor in any other than the established fashion.
Titus Livius, Ab Urbe Condita, 4.30, written around 18BC

In the year 427 Gaius Servilius Ahala and Lucius Papirius Mugillanus were elected as consuls in Rome. They wished to prosecute a war against Veii, but the progress of the war was slow.

In the year 426 Titus Quinctius Poenus Cincinnatus, Marcus Postumius Albinus Regillensis, Gaius Furius Pacilus Fusus and Aulus Cornelius Cossus were elected as consular tribunes in Rome.

Etruscan statue from Veii

The Romans sent an army to attack the armies of Veii, but the Romans suffered a defeat. Once again the Romans summoned Mamercus Aemilius Macerinus to act as Dictator. Thus the man who had been made the lowest in the state by the censors was called upon to save it.

Mamercus rallied his troops and took them to fight at Fidenae, which had revolted from Rome again, where they engaged the army of Veii once more. The battle hung in the balance and the men of Fidenae poured forth from the city bearing torches, but this fiery attack disoriented, but did not defeat the Romans, who fought back and won a victory of Veii and Fidenae. Mamercus returned to Rome and celebrated a triumph before resigning his dictatorship.

In the year 425 Aulus Sempronius Atratinus, Lucius Quinctius Cincinnatus, Lucius Furius Medullinus and Lucius Horatius Barbatus were elected as consular tribunes in Rome. Livy does not record any events that took place in this year.

In the year 424 Appius Claudius Crassus, Lucius Sergius Fidenas, Spurius Nautius Rutilus and Sextus Julius Iulus were elected as consular tribunes in Rome. That year a festival of games was held in Rome and was celebrated with great pomp.

There were some political debates to the effect that in the next year, the plebeians should coordinate to ensure that some of their number were elected as consular tribunes. However, through a piece of trickery, the senators were able to ensure that consuls would be elected in the following year, which the plebeians were not eligible to stand for.

In this year, the Etruscan town of Volturnum was seized by the Samnites. The Samnites were a central Italic people who spoke an Oscan language. They had been allied with the Etruscans of Volturnum but murdered them in their sleep after a festival, before renaming the town Capua.

In the year 423 Gaius Sempronius Atratinus and Quintus Fabius Vibulanus were elected as consuls in Rome. War with the Volscians was brewing and the Romans mustered an army. A confused and uncertain battle was fought between the Volscians and the Romans, with Gaius Sempronius Atratinus in charge of the Roman army. A soldier named Tempanius and a small troop of cavalry distinguished themselves and broke through the enemy lines, becoming separated from the main body of troops.

Darkness had fallen and Tempanius and his comrades found the Volscian camp abandoned, before returning to the Roman camp and finding it abandoned as well. They returned to Rome and found that the main Roman army had survived mostly intact and that there was no great disaster. But it was a most unsatisfactory campaign.

Roman currency from
around this time period

The tribunes brought charges against the consuls of previous years who had suffered a defeat at Veii three years earlier, partly exploiting public anger at Sempronius' conduct of the Volscian campaign. Tempanius was called to testify and is said to have refrained from passing judgement on his commander. Marcus Postumius was found guilty of having mismanaged the campaign against Veii earlier and was fined 10,000 asses (the heavy Roman bronze currency), which was a substantial sum.

In the year 422 Lucius Manlius Capitolinus, Lucius Papirius Mugillanus and Quintus Antonius Merenda were elected as consular tribunes in Rome. Charges were brought by a tribune of the plebs named Hortensius against Sempronius, who had been consul in the previous year and had led them to a draw/defeat against the Volscians. The other tribunes of plebs pleaded with Hortensius for the charges to be dropped, in that Sempronius had made some mistakes, but did not deserve to be humiliated. Hortensius eventually dropped the charges.

In the year 421 Titus Quinctius Capitolinus Barbatus and Cnaeus Fabius Vibulanus were elected as consuls in Rome. After the qualified success of the Volscians in previous years, the Aequi decided to try and attack Rome, but they were defeated very quickly.

The city then was paralysed by a political dispute as to whether or not the quaestorship, elected officials who were to assist the consuls in administration, should be open to plebeians. No decision was made, but the debate was postponed to previous years.

In the year 420 Quinctius Cincinnatus, Lucius Furius Medullinus, Marcus Manlius Vulso and Aulus Sempronius Atratinus were elected as consul tribunes in Rome. The tribunes suspected that there had been vote rigging, whether it had happened or not, and took the ex-consul Sempronius to trial once more for the conduct of his campaign against the Volscians three years previously. This time the trial went to court and Sempronius was fined 15,000 asses.

Later painting of an idealised Vestal Virgin

One of the Vestal Virgins, named Postumia, was accused of breaking her vows of chastity. However, it was proved that she had not in fact broken them but was merely acting flirtatiously. After being warned against such behaviour she was released.

In this year the Greek city of Cumae was taken by the Campanians. This had been the first Greek colony on the mainland of Italy, and had resisted attacks by the natives before. It was a colony of Euboea and had a long and glorious history, but it finally fell to the Oscans and Samnite peoples in this year. The walls of the city were broken down and it may have been abandoned for some time, before eventually being restored in the next century.

And thus the period draws to a close. It is not the most eventful two decades in Roman history, but it shows the operation of the Roman state at this time of the Republic. In particular it shows the prevalence of both tribunes with consular power and the calling of dictators, which happens frequently. The Struggle of the Orders continued of course, but it had not paralysed the city and it seemed that the plebeians and patricians were managing to at least coexist. Meanwhile the old enemies of the Volscians and Aequi appeared to be becoming weaker, while to the north, the city of Veii must have feared that a final showdown between themselves and Rome was coming.

Apulian style Corinthian helmet from southern Italy

Primary Sources
Diodorus Siculus, Library of History, written circa 40BC
Titus Livius, Ab Urbe Condita, written around 18BC
Titus Livius, Ab Urbe Condita, written around 18BC (a different translation)
Fasti Triumphales, written circa 19BC
Fasti Capitolini, written circa AD13

Related Blog Posts
459-440BC in Rome
439-420BC in the Near East
439-430BC in Greece
429-420BC in Greece
419-400BC in Rome

439-420BC in the Near East

Probable tomb of Artaxerxes I from Naqsh-i-Rustam

This blog will try and look at the Near East for the years 439-420BC, which during this period was mainly included in the Persian Empire. From the Persian period onwards, the historical sources become quite scant and we are quite heavily reliant on the writings of the Greeks, such as Thucydides, Plutarch and Diodorus Siculus.

Occasional snippets of information may come from the Hebrew biblical writings, or sacred traditions, but these will generally only concern affairs in Judea or those pertaining specifically to Jewish history. It is not that there is nothing to say for this period, but the history is now mainly written by the Greeks. So if most of what I have to say concerns the Greeks, we should remember it is because they are writing the history, not because nothing else was happening in the Persian Empire. For any events that deal with the Greeks, I will only write of them briefly as they are dealt with in greater detail in previous blogs, which will be listed at the end.

During this period Artaxerxes I was ruling as Great King of Persia. A peace had been negotiated between the Athenians and the Persians, which was possibly formalised in a treaty known as the Peace of Callias. Persia was still the largest empire in the world, stretching from the Indus River in the east, to the lands of Cyrene in the west and containing the ancient lands of Babylonia and Egypt. It was incredibly wealthy and could put larger armies in the field than any other kingdom. However, the increasing professionalism of armies in Greece, China and India meant that these vast armies may not have been the most effective in the world at that time. Still, Persia was the single most important empire in the world at this time.

In the year 439, the Samian rebellion against Athens failed. In the previous year, a Persian satrap in Asia Minor had given support to the islanders of Samos in their revolt against the Athenian Empire. Technically the Persian Empire was at peace with the Athenian Empire, but the satraps of Persia had a great deal of flexibility in their foreign affairs and the Persians could always claim that the satrap Pissuthnes was acting independently. Perhaps he was acting in his own capacity. Regardless of whether he acted on his own, or on the commands of Artaxerxes I, the revolt failed in this year. The Athenians were too preoccupied with the danger from Sparta to be interested in pursuing a quarrel with the Great King and thus peace reigned between Athens and Persia once more.

Not much can be said, to my knowledge, for the years 438, 437 and 436. Presumably things happened, but sadly I am not aware of them.

Cylinder of Talakhamani from Kush

Around the year 435 Malewiebamani the King of Kush who ruled in Meroe, died. He was succeeded by Talakhamani who was possibly his son, or perhaps a younger brother. Little is known about either of these kings save their names and places of burial. It is a sad fact that for now, the kings of Kush are little known, despite their known wealth. Malewiebamani was buried in the royal cemetery at Nuri.

Not much can be said, to my knowledge, for the year 434. Presumably things happened, but sadly I am not aware of them.

In the year 433 Nehemiah returned to Susa to serve King Artaxerxes I again. He was the personal cupbearer to the king, a position of considerable influence. However, he had been allowed to go to his homeland and served as governor of the small Persian province of Yehud Medinata, containing the city of Jerusalem and the rebuilt Temple of the Jews. His going was contingent on his returning at some point in the future, so in this year Nehemiah returned to resume his duties as cupbearer to the King.

It is possibly around this time that the book of Malachi is to be dated. This was a book containing prophecies. It called upon the returned exiles in Yehud to be more faithful in the fulfilment of their religious duties and noted the poverty that was creeping over the land as the result of the neglect of these duties. It is perhaps the last of the books of prophecy in the writings referred to as the Old Testament.

"I the LORD do not change. So you, the descendants of Jacob, are not destroyed. Ever since the time of your ancestors you have turned away from my decrees and have not kept them. Return to me, and I will return to you," says the LORD Almighty.
Malachi 3:6-7, written perhaps circa 433BC

Not much can be said, to my knowledge, for the year 432. Presumably things happened, but sadly I am not aware of them.

Kushite pyramids at Nuri

In the year 431 Talakhamani, the King of Kush who ruled in Meroe, died and was buried in Tomb 16 in the Kushite royal cemetery at Nuri. He was succeeded by his brother, or possibly nephew, Amanineteyerike.

Also in this year, the Great Peloponnesian War broke out between Athens and Sparta. This did not immediately affect the Persian Empire in the short term, but it meant that the two strongest Greek states no longer had an interest in fighting the Persians and gave the Persian Empire a measure of security.

Around the year 430, although the dates are open to interpretation, Nehemiah returned to Jerusalem from the court of the King of Persia. He was probably sent out to become governor again. It is not clear who was the governor in Jerusalem for the province of Yehud in his absence. The High Priest Eliashib probably had had some important role in the administration. The High Priest Eliashib had family ties with Tobiah the Ammonite, who together with Sanballat the Horonite, was an enemy of Nehemiah. Sanballat, Tobiah and possibly Geshem the Arabian, were governors of the small regional units bordering the province of Yehud. In the Persian Empire governors were afforded considerable freedom, which could extend to fighting wars among themselves, as long they took care to not harm the interests of the king.

Upon Nehemiah's return he found that Tobiah had been granted store rooms on the grounds of the temple. Nehemiah ordered these rooms emptied and purified, before reassigning them to their proper purpose. He also prohibited the traders from entering Jerusalem on the Sabbath day, as well as once more prohibiting the intermarriage of the Jews and their surrounding neighbours. This brought him once more into conflict with the high priestly family, which had marriage ties with Sanballat the Horonite. The account of the book of Nehemiah ends here.

Detail from the Lycian sarcophagus

Sometime later I asked his permission and came back to Jerusalem. Here I learned about the evil thing Eliashib had done in providing Tobiah a room in the courts of the house of God. I was greatly displeased and threw all Tobiah's household goods out of the room. I gave orders to purify the rooms, and then I put back into them the equipment of the house of God, with the grain offerings and the incense.
Nehemiah 13:6-7, probably written no earlier than 420BC

Not much can be said, to my knowledge, for the years 429, 428, 427 and 426. Presumably things happened, but sadly I am not aware of them.

In the year 425 the Spartans, who were faring badly in the Peloponnesian War, were sending emissaries to Persia, some of whom requested aid in various forms, but none of whom agreed with each other. Artaxerxes I sent an emissary to Sparta requesting that Sparta send one group of ambassadors who could speak for Sparta, as the current situation was too confusing. This Persian emissary was captured by the Athenians at Eion and detained. He was taken to Athens, where his cuneiform dispatches were translated and read by the Athenians. This would have let the Athenians know that the power of Persia might soon be ranged against them. Not wanting to allow the emissary to reach Sparta, but not wanting to arouse the anger of the King, the Athenians put the emissary on a ship and sent him to Ephesus, from which he could easily reach Persian territory.

The incident is a fascinating one, as it gives an insight into ancient diplomacy, but also shows that there were at least some people in Athens who were able to read cuneiform (which was probably written in the Akkadian language, but possibly Old Persian). This means that it would have been possible for Babylonian mathematical and astronomical documents to be read and understood by at least some people in Athens, and this may help explain the diffusion of knowledge in these matters that had been happening in the Greek world.

Lycian sarcophagus

During the winter ensuing, Aristides, son of Archippus, one of the commanders of the Athenian ships sent to collect money from the allies, arrested at Eion, on the Strymon, Artaphernes, a Persian, on his way from the King to Lacedaemon. He was conducted to Athens, where the Athenians got his dispatches translated from the Assyrian character and read them. With numerous references to other subjects, they in substance told the Lacedaemonians that the King did not know what they wanted, as of the many ambassadors they had sent him no two ever told the same story; if however they were prepared to speak plainly they might send him some envoys with this Persian. The Athenians afterwards sent back Artaphernes in a galley to Ephesus, and ambassadors with him, who heard there of the death of King Artaxerxes, son of Xerxes, which took place about that time, and so returned home. 
Thucydides, History of the Peloponnesian War, Book 4, written circa 400BC

Around this time, in Sidon, a beautiful sarcophagus, carved in the Greek style by Ionian artists was made. It is known as the Lycian sarcophagus of Sidon, as the style of the tomb is done in such a way that it matches the Lycian tombs in Asia Minor. The Phoenician kings seem to have developed an interest in elaborate sarcophagi, with each king wanting a more elaborate tomb than the previous. The Lycian sarcophagus is decorated with Greek mythological motifs, such as the battle between the Lapiths and Centaurs, however more generic scenes such as lion-hunting are also shown. Whereas previous Sidonian kings had taken Egyptian sarcophagi, the new generation were quite interested in copying Greek culture.

Probable tomb of Artaxerxes I at
Naqsh-i-Rustam

In the year 424 Artaxerxes I, known as Artaxerxes the Long-Handed, died, probably in or around the months of November or December. According to Ctesias, his wife Damaspia also died the same day, although he does not say why. Ctesias then says that his son took the throne under the name of Xerxes II. Xerxes II ruled for 45 days and then was murdered by his half-brother Sogdianus while Xerxes II lay in a drunken stupor. Ctesias then reports that Sogdianus took over the empire and ruled for about a year, before he was killed by his brother, who reigned as Darius II.

Now, Ctesias is well-known for being an unreliable narrator and his confounded history is one of the most infuriating pieces of historical writing to emerge from the classical world. Worse, he was supposedly a physician at the court of the king of Persia, not that long after these events took place, so he absolutely should have known the correct story. Yet, the story that is given here appears to be incorrect. There are Babylonian tablets that mention Darius II reigning within about a month after the death of Artaxerxes I, which does not leave enough time for the two kings that Ctesias mentions.

What is most likely to have happened is that there was a civil war upon the death of Artaxerxes I and that Xerxes I took over the palace, before being killed by his rival Sogdianus who was based nearby in Elam. Finally Sogdianus was defeated and killed by Darius II who probably had his powerbase in Babylonia. Thus this would explain the three kings of Ctesias and the Babylonian documents. This is speculation of course. It is entirely possible that Ctesias is just wrong.

It is likely that Amestris died in or around this time, although it is not clear that it had anything to do with the civil war. Artaxerxes I was probably buried in a rock-cut tomb in the Achaemenid cemetery at Naqsh-i-Rustam. His name is not inscribed upon the tomb, so the identification is uncertain, but probable. The tomb is decorated with a relief of the king, holding a bow and saluting Ahura Mazda, while the subject peoples of the empire are arranged below, upholding the platform.

Relief from Tomb of Artaxerxes I showing the
nations of the empire

In the year 423 Sogdianus was killed and Darius II became the undisputed king of Persia. It is possible either that Darius II revolted against Sogdianus, or, more likely, that the two half-brothers had been at war from the year before, following the death of their father Artaxerxes I.

Secydianus, then summoned Ochus to court, who promised to present himself but failed to do so. After he had been summoned several times, he collected a large force with the obvious intention of seizing the throne. He was joined by Arbarius, commander of the cavalry, and Arxanes, satrap of Egypt. The eunuch Artoxares also came from Armenia and placed the crown on the head of Ochus against his will. Thus Ochus became king and changed his name to Dariaeus. At the suggestion of Parysatis, he endeavoured by trickery and solemn promises to win over Secydianus. Menostanes did all he could to prevent Secydianus from putting faith in these promises or coming to terms with those who were trying to deceive him. In spite of this Secydianus allowed himself to be persuaded, was arrested, thrown into the ashes, and died, after a reign of six months and fifteen days. 
Ctesias, Persica, written circa 398BC

Not much can be said, to my knowledge, for the years 422 and 421. Presumably things happened, but sadly I am not aware of them.

A much later (medieval) scroll of the book of Esther

Around the year 420, although the dates are very inexact, the sacred writings of the Jews began to be collected and others were written. It is likely that the books of Esther, Ezra, Nehemiah and Chronicles were written in something resembling their current form at around this time.

There may have been a few additional decades of rearrangement of materials. For example Nehemiah 12:10-11 seems to have been a later interpolation giving the family tree of the High Priests down to around the year 350. But the majority of the book of Nehemiah itself almost certainly predates this and was probably written in or around this time period. Esther would later have Greek interpolations added to it, perhaps as late as the 2nd or 1st century BC, but these are clearly late additions and done in a completely separate language. I would not get too concerned over the exact dating of these books, but it is important to note that this is the probable time of their composition.

One of the sons of Joiada son of Eliashib the high priest was son-in-law to Sanballat the Horonite. And I drove him away from me. Remember them, my God, because they defiled the priestly office and the covenant of the priesthood and of the Levites. So I purified the priests and the Levites of everything foreign, and assigned duties to them, each to his own task. I also made provision for contributions of wood at designated times, and for the first fruits. Remember me with favour, my God.
Nehemiah 13:28-31, probably written no earlier than 420BC

It seems strange to have so little to write about the largest empire in the world for a span of two decades. Aside from the deaths and wars of kings and states on their borders, or tombs of their subject kings, or the affairs of the tiny province of Yehud, there is almost nothing to report, save that at the beginning of the period Artaxerxes I was ruling and that at the end of the period, Darius II was ruling. It is a terrible thing that there are such gaps in our knowledge, but this is the state of affairs. I will continue the story in the next blog.

Detail from the Lycian Sarcophagus

Primary Sources
Elephantine Papyri, written between circa 459-402BC
Book of Malachi, written perhaps circa 433BC
Book of Esther, written possibly as early as 420BC
Ezra, probably written no earlier than 420BC
Nehemiah, probably written no earlier than 420BC
Thucydides, History of the Peloponnesian War, written circa 400BC
Ctesias, Persica, written circa 398BC
The Parian Chronicle, written circa 216BC
Apocrypha 1 Esdras (2 Esdras in Slavonic, 3 Esdras in Appendix to Vulgate), written circa 170BC
2 Esdras (3 Esdras in Slavonic, 4 Esdras in Appendix to Vulgate: Composite work comprising 5 Ezra [chs 1-2], 4 Ezra [3-14], 6 Ezra [chs 15-16]). All three works were composed by circa AD250, but may only have been combined as late as AD800
Diodorus Siculus, Library of History, written circa 40BC
Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews, written circa AD93
Sukkah, written perhaps circa AD230

Secondary Sources
Clarification page on books called Ezra/Esdras

Related Blog Posts:
459-440BC in the Near East
439-430BC in Greece
429-420BC in Greece
439-420BC in Rome
419-400BC in the Near East