439-420BC in the Near East

Probable tomb of Artaxerxes I from Naqsh-i-Rustam

This blog will try and look at the Near East for the years 439-420BC, which during this period was mainly included in the Persian Empire. From the Persian period onwards, the historical sources become quite scant and we are quite heavily reliant on the writings of the Greeks, such as Thucydides, Plutarch and Diodorus Siculus.

Occasional snippets of information may come from the Hebrew biblical writings, or sacred traditions, but these will generally only concern affairs in Judea or those pertaining specifically to Jewish history. It is not that there is nothing to say for this period, but the history is now mainly written by the Greeks. So if most of what I have to say concerns the Greeks, we should remember it is because they are writing the history, not because nothing else was happening in the Persian Empire. For any events that deal with the Greeks, I will only write of them briefly as they are dealt with in greater detail in previous blogs, which will be listed at the end.

During this period Artaxerxes I was ruling as Great King of Persia. A peace had been negotiated between the Athenians and the Persians, which was possibly formalised in a treaty known as the Peace of Callias. Persia was still the largest empire in the world, stretching from the Indus River in the east, to the lands of Cyrene in the west and containing the ancient lands of Babylonia and Egypt. It was incredibly wealthy and could put larger armies in the field than any other kingdom. However, the increasing professionalism of armies in Greece, China and India meant that these vast armies may not have been the most effective in the world at that time. Still, Persia was the single most important empire in the world at this time.

In the year 439, the Samian rebellion against Athens failed. In the previous year, a Persian satrap in Asia Minor had given support to the islanders of Samos in their revolt against the Athenian Empire. Technically the Persian Empire was at peace with the Athenian Empire, but the satraps of Persia had a great deal of flexibility in their foreign affairs and the Persians could always claim that the satrap Pissuthnes was acting independently. Perhaps he was acting in his own capacity. Regardless of whether he acted on his own, or on the commands of Artaxerxes I, the revolt failed in this year. The Athenians were too preoccupied with the danger from Sparta to be interested in pursuing a quarrel with the Great King and thus peace reigned between Athens and Persia once more.

Not much can be said, to my knowledge, for the years 438, 437 and 436. Presumably things happened, but sadly I am not aware of them.

Cylinder of Talakhamani from Kush

Around the year 435 Malewiebamani the King of Kush who ruled in Meroe, died. He was succeeded by Talakhamani who was possibly his son, or perhaps a younger brother. Little is known about either of these kings save their names and places of burial. It is a sad fact that for now, the kings of Kush are little known, despite their known wealth. Malewiebamani was buried in the royal cemetery at Nuri.

Not much can be said, to my knowledge, for the year 434. Presumably things happened, but sadly I am not aware of them.

In the year 433 Nehemiah returned to Susa to serve King Artaxerxes I again. He was the personal cupbearer to the king, a position of considerable influence. However, he had been allowed to go to his homeland and served as governor of the small Persian province of Yehud Medinata, containing the city of Jerusalem and the rebuilt Temple of the Jews. His going was contingent on his returning at some point in the future, so in this year Nehemiah returned to resume his duties as cupbearer to the King.

It is possibly around this time that the book of Malachi is to be dated. This was a book containing prophecies. It called upon the returned exiles in Yehud to be more faithful in the fulfilment of their religious duties and noted the poverty that was creeping over the land as the result of the neglect of these duties. It is perhaps the last of the books of prophecy in the writings referred to as the Old Testament.

"I the LORD do not change. So you, the descendants of Jacob, are not destroyed. Ever since the time of your ancestors you have turned away from my decrees and have not kept them. Return to me, and I will return to you," says the LORD Almighty.
Malachi 3:6-7, written perhaps circa 433BC

Not much can be said, to my knowledge, for the year 432. Presumably things happened, but sadly I am not aware of them.

Kushite pyramids at Nuri

In the year 431 Talakhamani, the King of Kush who ruled in Meroe, died and was buried in Tomb 16 in the Kushite royal cemetery at Nuri. He was succeeded by his brother, or possibly nephew, Amanineteyerike.

Also in this year, the Great Peloponnesian War broke out between Athens and Sparta. This did not immediately affect the Persian Empire in the short term, but it meant that the two strongest Greek states no longer had an interest in fighting the Persians and gave the Persian Empire a measure of security.

Around the year 430, although the dates are open to interpretation, Nehemiah returned to Jerusalem from the court of the King of Persia. He was probably sent out to become governor again. It is not clear who was the governor in Jerusalem for the province of Yehud in his absence. The High Priest Eliashib probably had had some important role in the administration. The High Priest Eliashib had family ties with Tobiah the Ammonite, who together with Sanballat the Horonite, was an enemy of Nehemiah. Sanballat, Tobiah and possibly Geshem the Arabian, were governors of the small regional units bordering the province of Yehud. In the Persian Empire governors were afforded considerable freedom, which could extend to fighting wars among themselves, as long they took care to not harm the interests of the king.

Upon Nehemiah's return he found that Tobiah had been granted store rooms on the grounds of the temple. Nehemiah ordered these rooms emptied and purified, before reassigning them to their proper purpose. He also prohibited the traders from entering Jerusalem on the Sabbath day, as well as once more prohibiting the intermarriage of the Jews and their surrounding neighbours. This brought him once more into conflict with the high priestly family, which had marriage ties with Sanballat the Horonite. The account of the book of Nehemiah ends here.

Detail from the Lycian sarcophagus

Sometime later I asked his permission and came back to Jerusalem. Here I learned about the evil thing Eliashib had done in providing Tobiah a room in the courts of the house of God. I was greatly displeased and threw all Tobiah's household goods out of the room. I gave orders to purify the rooms, and then I put back into them the equipment of the house of God, with the grain offerings and the incense.
Nehemiah 13:6-7, probably written no earlier than 420BC

Not much can be said, to my knowledge, for the years 429, 428, 427 and 426. Presumably things happened, but sadly I am not aware of them.

In the year 425 the Spartans, who were faring badly in the Peloponnesian War, were sending emissaries to Persia, some of whom requested aid in various forms, but none of whom agreed with each other. Artaxerxes I sent an emissary to Sparta requesting that Sparta send one group of ambassadors who could speak for Sparta, as the current situation was too confusing. This Persian emissary was captured by the Athenians at Eion and detained. He was taken to Athens, where his cuneiform dispatches were translated and read by the Athenians. This would have let the Athenians know that the power of Persia might soon be ranged against them. Not wanting to allow the emissary to reach Sparta, but not wanting to arouse the anger of the King, the Athenians put the emissary on a ship and sent him to Ephesus, from which he could easily reach Persian territory.

The incident is a fascinating one, as it gives an insight into ancient diplomacy, but also shows that there were at least some people in Athens who were able to read cuneiform (which was probably written in the Akkadian language, but possibly Old Persian). This means that it would have been possible for Babylonian mathematical and astronomical documents to be read and understood by at least some people in Athens, and this may help explain the diffusion of knowledge in these matters that had been happening in the Greek world.

Lycian sarcophagus

During the winter ensuing, Aristides, son of Archippus, one of the commanders of the Athenian ships sent to collect money from the allies, arrested at Eion, on the Strymon, Artaphernes, a Persian, on his way from the King to Lacedaemon. He was conducted to Athens, where the Athenians got his dispatches translated from the Assyrian character and read them. With numerous references to other subjects, they in substance told the Lacedaemonians that the King did not know what they wanted, as of the many ambassadors they had sent him no two ever told the same story; if however they were prepared to speak plainly they might send him some envoys with this Persian. The Athenians afterwards sent back Artaphernes in a galley to Ephesus, and ambassadors with him, who heard there of the death of King Artaxerxes, son of Xerxes, which took place about that time, and so returned home. 
Thucydides, History of the Peloponnesian War, Book 4, written circa 400BC

Around this time, in Sidon, a beautiful sarcophagus, carved in the Greek style by Ionian artists was made. It is known as the Lycian sarcophagus of Sidon, as the style of the tomb is done in such a way that it matches the Lycian tombs in Asia Minor. The Phoenician kings seem to have developed an interest in elaborate sarcophagi, with each king wanting a more elaborate tomb than the previous. The Lycian sarcophagus is decorated with Greek mythological motifs, such as the battle between the Lapiths and Centaurs, however more generic scenes such as lion-hunting are also shown. Whereas previous Sidonian kings had taken Egyptian sarcophagi, the new generation were quite interested in copying Greek culture.

Probable tomb of Artaxerxes I at
Naqsh-i-Rustam

In the year 424 Artaxerxes I, known as Artaxerxes the Long-Handed, died, probably in or around the months of November or December. According to Ctesias, his wife Damaspia also died the same day, although he does not say why. Ctesias then says that his son took the throne under the name of Xerxes II. Xerxes II ruled for 45 days and then was murdered by his half-brother Sogdianus while Xerxes II lay in a drunken stupor. Ctesias then reports that Sogdianus took over the empire and ruled for about a year, before he was killed by his brother, who reigned as Darius II.

Now, Ctesias is well-known for being an unreliable narrator and his confounded history is one of the most infuriating pieces of historical writing to emerge from the classical world. Worse, he was supposedly a physician at the court of the king of Persia, not that long after these events took place, so he absolutely should have known the correct story. Yet, the story that is given here appears to be incorrect. There are Babylonian tablets that mention Darius II reigning within about a month after the death of Artaxerxes I, which does not leave enough time for the two kings that Ctesias mentions.

What is most likely to have happened is that there was a civil war upon the death of Artaxerxes I and that Xerxes I took over the palace, before being killed by his rival Sogdianus who was based nearby in Elam. Finally Sogdianus was defeated and killed by Darius II who probably had his powerbase in Babylonia. Thus this would explain the three kings of Ctesias and the Babylonian documents. This is speculation of course. It is entirely possible that Ctesias is just wrong.

It is likely that Amestris died in or around this time, although it is not clear that it had anything to do with the civil war. Artaxerxes I was probably buried in a rock-cut tomb in the Achaemenid cemetery at Naqsh-i-Rustam. His name is not inscribed upon the tomb, so the identification is uncertain, but probable. The tomb is decorated with a relief of the king, holding a bow and saluting Ahura Mazda, while the subject peoples of the empire are arranged below, upholding the platform.

Relief from Tomb of Artaxerxes I showing the
nations of the empire

In the year 423 Sogdianus was killed and Darius II became the undisputed king of Persia. It is possible either that Darius II revolted against Sogdianus, or, more likely, that the two half-brothers had been at war from the year before, following the death of their father Artaxerxes I.

Secydianus, then summoned Ochus to court, who promised to present himself but failed to do so. After he had been summoned several times, he collected a large force with the obvious intention of seizing the throne. He was joined by Arbarius, commander of the cavalry, and Arxanes, satrap of Egypt. The eunuch Artoxares also came from Armenia and placed the crown on the head of Ochus against his will. Thus Ochus became king and changed his name to Dariaeus. At the suggestion of Parysatis, he endeavoured by trickery and solemn promises to win over Secydianus. Menostanes did all he could to prevent Secydianus from putting faith in these promises or coming to terms with those who were trying to deceive him. In spite of this Secydianus allowed himself to be persuaded, was arrested, thrown into the ashes, and died, after a reign of six months and fifteen days. 
Ctesias, Persica, written circa 398BC

Not much can be said, to my knowledge, for the years 422 and 421. Presumably things happened, but sadly I am not aware of them.

A much later (medieval) scroll of the book of Esther

Around the year 420, although the dates are very inexact, the sacred writings of the Jews began to be collected and others were written. It is likely that the books of Esther, Ezra, Nehemiah and Chronicles were written in something resembling their current form at around this time.

There may have been a few additional decades of rearrangement of materials. For example Nehemiah 12:10-11 seems to have been a later interpolation giving the family tree of the High Priests down to around the year 350. But the majority of the book of Nehemiah itself almost certainly predates this and was probably written in or around this time period. Esther would later have Greek interpolations added to it, perhaps as late as the 2nd or 1st century BC, but these are clearly late additions and done in a completely separate language. I would not get too concerned over the exact dating of these books, but it is important to note that this is the probable time of their composition.

One of the sons of Joiada son of Eliashib the high priest was son-in-law to Sanballat the Horonite. And I drove him away from me. Remember them, my God, because they defiled the priestly office and the covenant of the priesthood and of the Levites. So I purified the priests and the Levites of everything foreign, and assigned duties to them, each to his own task. I also made provision for contributions of wood at designated times, and for the first fruits. Remember me with favour, my God.
Nehemiah 13:28-31, probably written no earlier than 420BC

It seems strange to have so little to write about the largest empire in the world for a span of two decades. Aside from the deaths and wars of kings and states on their borders, or tombs of their subject kings, or the affairs of the tiny province of Yehud, there is almost nothing to report, save that at the beginning of the period Artaxerxes I was ruling and that at the end of the period, Darius II was ruling. It is a terrible thing that there are such gaps in our knowledge, but this is the state of affairs. I will continue the story in the next blog.

Detail from the Lycian Sarcophagus

Primary Sources
Elephantine Papyri, written between circa 459-402BC
Book of Malachi, written perhaps circa 433BC
Book of Esther, written possibly as early as 420BC
Ezra, probably written no earlier than 420BC
Nehemiah, probably written no earlier than 420BC
Thucydides, History of the Peloponnesian War, written circa 400BC
Ctesias, Persica, written circa 398BC
The Parian Chronicle, written circa 216BC
Apocrypha 1 Esdras (2 Esdras in Slavonic, 3 Esdras in Appendix to Vulgate), written circa 170BC
2 Esdras (3 Esdras in Slavonic, 4 Esdras in Appendix to Vulgate: Composite work comprising 5 Ezra [chs 1-2], 4 Ezra [3-14], 6 Ezra [chs 15-16]). All three works were composed by circa AD250, but may only have been combined as late as AD800
Diodorus Siculus, Library of History, written circa 40BC
Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews, written circa AD93
Sukkah, written perhaps circa AD230

Secondary Sources
Clarification page on books called Ezra/Esdras

Related Blog Posts:
459-440BC in the Near East
439-430BC in Greece
429-420BC in Greece
439-420BC in Rome
419-400BC in the Near East